American politics

Coordination problems

occur when members of a group need to make joint decisions or align their actions but face challenges in doing so, leading to inefficiencies or failure to achieve a collective goal

Prisoner's dilemma

occurs when individuals find themselves better off with their own interests in mind despite them being better off cooperating and having a shared end goal.

Public goods

Goods that are non-excludable, meaning no one can be prevented from using them and one person's use does not reduce availability for others, often leading to coordination problems in their provision

Free riding

part of prisoners dilemma where an individual feels like their contribution is so small that they’ll be tempted to enjoy the benefits without contributing

Tragedy of the commons

individual self-interest leads to the depletion of a shared resource.

Transaction costs

the expenses of time, effort, and resources needed to make and implement collective decisions

Conformity costs

the difference between what a person would prefers and what the collective body actually does. Individuals pay conformity costs when collective decisions produce policy outcomes that don’t best serve their interests.

Madison’s “extended republic”

Federalist No. 10, arguing that a large, representative republic would best control the dangers of "factions" (interest groups). As it makes it harder for a singular faction to take over.

Madison’s definition of a faction

a collection of citizens who are united and actuated by common passions or interests. Different parties, like Democrats, Republicans, Libertarians, and conservatives are examples of factions within the government today.

Ineffective controls of faction

• enlightened statesman: ideal leaders in power, according to Madison we can’t rely on them

• Religion or morality

• Wise representation/senators

Separation of powers

distribution of government powers among several political institutions. In the United States, at the national level power is divided between the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court

Bicameralism

System where the legislature is divided into two chambers: in America its congress which is made up of the senate and the house

Representation in Madison’s constitution

rests upon American view that the people’s authoritative will can never be perfectly represented. Therefore, the people’s will can only be institutionally, partially, and only temporarily approximated

Tyranny (American definition)

The possession of power without checks or controls and the ruling power exploits its authority.

Rule of Law

The principle that all individuals and institutions are equally subject to the law

14th Amendment

Grants citizenship to all people born of naturalized in the US. Guarantees equal protection and due process under the law for all citizens.

incorporation

process by which the Supreme Court has applied enumerated rights to state governments (including local), not just federal government through the 14th Amendment’s due process clause.

unenumerated rights

fundamental rights that aren’t explicitly listed in the Constitution, but are recognized as fundamental and protected by its overall structure.

civil rights act of 1964

Law prohibiting discrimination based on race in public accommodations, schools, and any federally assisted program. Enforced equal treatment under federal law.

voting rights act of 1965

Authorized federal suspension of states’ restrictive and electoral tests (literacy tests) and federal officers to register votes directly in an effort to eliminate racial discrimination in voting.

imminent lawless action test

standard that speech is protected unless it’s intended to incite immediate unlawful behavior, set by Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

Duverger’s Law

Principle stating that single-member district plurality systems tend to produce two major political parties due to voters and politicians avoiding “wasting” their votes on minor parties.

single member district plurality rule

an electoral system where one represented is elected per district, and the candidate with the most votes wins. 

Pendleton Act

Established merit-based civil service system and reduced patronage. It banned compulsory assessments and political firings, marking a shift towards professionalization in federal employment.

Australian ballot

Uniform, government-printed, secret ballot which allowed voters to make independent choices without intimidation or bribery, helping to reduce corruption in elections.

Ideological polarization

A bimodal distribution of policy views in which the distribution of issue positions creates two partisan groupings that are internally homogenous and externally distinct. Each party is ideologically consistent.

ideological sorting

When peoples political ideologies become more aligned with their party affiliation. Making parties ideologically homogenous.

southern realignment

The gradual shift of white southern voters from the democratic party to the republican party after the civil rights era due to the democratic party’s support of the movement.

affective polarization

The growing social divide between partisans, which entails an increasing desire to socially segregate and an increasing “warmth bias”

Aligned v. cross-cutting social identity

Aligned: when a large proportion of members in one group are/believed to be also members of the other group. People with aligned social identities tend to be more biased, less tolerant toward out-group

cross-cutting: when someone identifies themselves with many groups that don’t share members.

casework

requests from constituents for information and help in dealing with government agencies. Helps legislators build support and demonstrate their responsiveness

messaging bills

“symbolic legislation”, bills that are written and voted on to send a message of a party’s priorities or appeal to voters but not intended to actually become a law.

earmarks (pork barrel spending)

Amendments to bills that give special benefits to states, districts, and campaign contributors. Seen as electorally significant and useful for getting bills passed.

particularized benefits

a benefit for a specific individual, group, or geographical constituency, where specific politicians had a hand in the allocation. The district benefits, nation pays

gerrymandering

Practice of drawing district lines to advantage/disadvantage a particular political candidate or group. Allows legislators to choose their voters rather than the other way around.

party-centered elections

campaigns where candidates run as representatives of their political parties, emphasizing their parties platforms and national issues.

candidate-centered elections

elections that focus on the personal appeal, background, and issue positions of individual candidates instead of their party affiliation.

rules committee

House committee that determines the procedures for bringing bills to the floor for debate and votes. Gives majority leadership strong control over legislative agenda.

filibuster

procedural tactic to prevent a bill from coming to the floor for a vote. Allows a minority of members to block/delay legislation by extending debate, and can only be overcome by a cloture vote.

cloture vote

Senate procedure that requires 60 votes to end a debate and move to a final vote on a bill. 

conditional party government

idea that when congress delegates greater authority to leaders, there will be greater ideological homogeneity of the party and/or ideological polarization between the parties.

nationalization

The homogenization of political agendas across subnational units. Reduces the importance of local factors and personal politics.