Psychology midterm

biological approach

focused on the body, esp the mind and nervous system

studies the body’s reaction to different situations

leads to neuroscience

neuroscience

studies the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system

behavioral approach

emphasizes observable behaviors and the environment

B.F. SKINNER’s ideals on psychology should be about wat people do that is observable, not unobservable thoughts

• what people would do/ their actions and why

psychodynamic approach

emphasizes unconscious thought, particularly biological drives, childhood experiences and the demands of society

Sigmund Freud- believed psychoanalysis that childhood experiences affect adult lives

humanistic approach

emphasizes a person’s positive aspects and uses positivity for a person to choose their destiny

people can be affected by their environments and lives by doing good things

“be the person you want to be”

cognitive approach

emphasizes the mental process in how we do things (ex: solving a math problem, how we remember and what we remember)

contrasts the behaviorist approach

evolutionary approach

believes that human behaviors should be explained through evolutionary ideas like adaption, reproduction, and natural selection

does not look at differences in culture and gender experiences

sociocultural approach

examines the influences of social and cultural environments on behaviors

often compares how people of different cultures react differently to situations

psychology

the scientific study of mental and behavioral processes

behavioral = observable

mental = unobservable

a level of critical thinking is required to fully explore the behavioral and mental aspect of psychology

origins of psychology

started as myths to explain the unexplainable

leads to philosophy: the investigations of the underlying principles of being and knowledge… leads away from the supernatural

aristotle, pluto, socrates, etc

willhelm wundt

founded the first psychology lab to study how long it takes the brain to register sound in 1879

founded structuralism: the approach to discover the basic elements, or structures, or mental processes

Focused on how the brain does things

american approach

Functionalism- William James’ approach to mental processes, emphasizing the function and the purposes of the mind and the behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment

looks at WHY the brain does things, not just HOW it does things

types of variables

independent: a manipulated variable that is changed to see what its effect is

• categorical if it can be one of a few fixed choices

dependent: the outcome of the experiment that is dependent on the independent variable and its changes

experimental vs control groups

experimental group- those poeple exposed to the independent variable

control group- the poeple treated exactly the same as the experimental group EXCEPT for the independent variable

within participants (experimental types)

when people serve as their own control group, doing the study both with and without a changed variable

quasi experimental (experimental types)

when your placement in an experimental or control group is not randomly done

experimental research

when a researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence another variable

people are randomly assigned to the test group or the control group

the people are compared ot see what the variable might change in the two groups

descriptive research

describes some event without saying why it happens

can observe an event, do a survey or interview, or a case study

correlation research

research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together

• example: how does hours of sleep before a test affect the grade

theres a correlation coefficient that says how the two variables are related from 1.00 to -1.00

• 1.00 (both variables goes the same directions) and -1.00 (both go in the opposite direction) is a high correlation, 0 is no correlation

correlation vs causation

Correlation does not equal causation, meaning that there are often a third (confounding) or more variables (ice cream sales do not cause crime rates to increase) 

longitudinal designs

A kind of systematic observation that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time 

Validity

how sounds are the conclusions drawn from an experiment

• Are they applicable to the outside world? -external validity 

• Are there biases from the experimenter or subjects -internal validity 

biases

Demand characteristics- the experimenter gives subtle clues into how they expect the participants to act

Research participant bias- when the participants act or answers in the way they think the experimenter wants them to

avoiding biases

Double blind experiment- no one knows which groups is the experimental or control until the end of the study

Placebo effect- people act differently if given an inactive pill (they act as if they received an actual medication)

five steps of the scientific method

1. Observe some phenomenon

2. Formulate hypothesis and predictions

3. Testing through empirical research

4. Drawing conclusion

5. Evaluating conclusions

Testing through empirical research

The process of collecting and analyzing data by an operational definition (how do we determine a “returned” wallet)

leads to conclusions

Drawing conclusions

does the data support the hypothesis

research samples

Population- the entire group you want to make conclusions about.

Sample- the sunset of the population that is chosen for a study

Random sample- making sure that every person in the population has an equal chance at being chosen to ensure that the conclusions that can apply to different people. Compare to a sample of convenience

settings and environment of a research

Lab- can control the setting, but people know they are being tested and might act differently. Also hard to get a random sample

Real world- can't control outside influences and variables, but get to see people in their “natural” setting

ethical research (APA guidelines)

Rights of participants vs. rights of scientists 

Informed consent- people should know what is involved and what might develop

Confidentiality- answers should be private and only used in research

Debriefing- letting the participant know the purpose and general hypothesis of the experiment

Deception- is allowed for research but participants should be told why they were deceived 

Approval for participation must be received particularly with children and others unable to consent on their own

Animal research must be done ethically 

nervous system

Nervous System: the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry

There are 50 million nerve cells per cubic centimeter of brain 

Brains range from 975-1400cc Characteristics

Each nerve cell communicates with about 10,000 other nerve cells. This allows for an unlimited number of connections

The cells work together to react to a situation

The brain’s plasticity allows us to react to new situations

Using a part of your brain makes it better suited to react to that type of situation

pathways of the nervous system

Afferent nerves (sensory nerves): nerves that send information about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory receptors

Efferent nerves (motor nerves): nerves that send information out of the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body

Neural networks in the brain process the information brought by the afferent nerves, then sends messages back to the parts of the body via the efferent nerves

nervous system divisions

• Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord. Includes 99% of all nerve cells

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

  • PNS has two parts: somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system 

Somatic and Autonomic

• Somatic nervous system: sensory nerves send messages to the CNS, then motor nerves tell muscles what to do 

  • Incolunatary 

• Autonomic Nervous System: takes messages to and from internal organs to do unconscious things

  • Things we don't control 

  • Involuntary 

Stress and stressors

• Sympathetic nervous system- mobilizes your body for action when stressed

  • Pupils are dilated

  • Heartbeat Accelerates

  • Digestion Stops

  • Relaxes bladder

• Parasympathetic nervous system- calms your body down when stressed

  • Pupils contract

  • Heartbeat slows

  • Digestion continues

  • Bladder Contracts

acute vs chronic stress

• Acute stress- stress related to a particular event or moment in time, and will go away when the moment is over

• Chronic stress- stress that consistently wears at you and don't even seem to go away 

  • Your body produces corticosteroids to deal with stress

neurons and glial cells

Neurons - Nerve cells that handle information and process it for a response

Glial cells – Nerve cells that support the neurons with nutrients and non-processing support

Parts of a neuron

• Cell body– Contains the nucleus, which powers the cell

• Dendrites – Receive information from other neurons via axons and sends the information to the cell body

• Axons – Send information away from the cell body to other neurons and dendrites

• Myelin sheath – A layer of fat surrounding axons.

• The insulated axons move information more quickly and efficiently

• A damaged myelin sheath can lead to neurological diseases like Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

neural impulses

Information is sent via neurons by neural impulses

This is positive (sodium and potassium) and negative (chlorine) ions carrying information via tiny electrical impulses

• This active potential lasts 1/1000 of a second

neuron communications

Neurons communicate via electrochemical transmissions.  The neural impulse is the electro side of things (dendrite to axon)

The other component of communication is chemicals in the brain (axon to dendrite)

synapses and gaps

• Synapses – Tiny gaps between neurons

• Impulses are converted into chemical signals to go across the synaptic gaps

• Terminal button – The end of an axon where this process happens

• The synaptic vesicles (sacs) hold neurotransmitters that send chemicals over the gap to the next neuron.

• Reuptake – Neurotransmitters returning to the sending neurons

altering chemicals in the neuron

• Agonist – A chemical that you take that mimics a neurotransmitter

• Antagonist -  A chemical that you take that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effects

• Neurons and parts of the brain are all connected by neural networks

organization of the brain

hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

hindbrain is the most simplistic and the forebrain is the least

hindbrain

the oldest part of the brain

Brain stem controls breathing , heart, and other systems needed to survive (medulla oblongata)

Pons controls sleep and arousal

Cerebellum controls motor coordination and movements

midbrain

Connects the forebrain to the hindbrain (located at the top of the brain stem)

Few neurons, but axons connect to other parts of the brain 

Mostly sends information front of the ears and eyes to the rest of the brain

Reticular formation deals with walking, sleeping, and reactions to noises 

Forebrain

Largest part of the brain, most highly developed in humans and other “most evolved” mammals

Limbic system- most basic part of the forebrain. Important in memory and emotion, although they do not originate in the limbic system

limbic system

Amygdala- works to identify appropriate food, mates, and social rivals. Important to fear and rage (the four “fours”)

Hippocampus- helps process memories in the cerebral cortex

Thalamus- located at the top of the brain stem, relays information to the appropriate spots in the cerebral cortex

Basal ganglia- neurons that coordinate communication between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex for voluntary movements

Hypothalamus- monitors pleasurable activities as well as emotion, stress and reward. Also integral in the endocrine system and monitors blood condition

cerebral cortex

the newest part of the brain, and is divided into 2 hemispheres, with 4 lobes per hemi

responsible for higher level thinking and emotions

the hemispheres of the brain

(left- more analytical, right- more artistic)

occipital, temporal, frontal, and parietal lobe

occipital lobe

Lobe that deals with visual stimuli, located in the back of the brain 

Processes color, shape, size, and motion

temporal lobe

Located in front of the occipital lobe, just above the ears, involved in hearing, language processing, and memory

Connects to the limbic system and long term memory storage 

frontal lobe

Located behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence, and control voluntary muscles

The “smarter” the animals, the larger the frontal lobe (30% of the cortex in humans vs. 3.5% in cats)

Also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in planning, reasoning, and self control 

parietal lobe

Located at the top and rear of the head, involved in spatial location, attention, and motor sensation

All of the lobes connect to each other and work together in performing numerous tasks

somattosensory cortex

processes body sensation and is next to the parietal lobes, input from body

motor cortex

 processes information about voluntary movements, like the frontal lobes, which it is next to output to body

corpus callosum

connective bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres

broca’s area

dedicated to speech

wernicke’s area

dedicated to language comprehension

brain lateralization

inclination for certain cognitive processes to be specialized to one hemisphere of the brain or the other

endocrine system

a series of glands that regulate some organs by releasing chemicals into the bloodstream

Works in conjunction with the nervous system, but much more slowly 

Works by releasing hormones through the bloodstream

parts of the endocrine system

Consists of the pituitary gland, pineal gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, thyroid and parathyroid glands, and ovaries or testes

Works with the autonomic nervous system to produce and amplify rage and fear

pituitary gland

• Located in the brain, controls growth and commands other glands

• Master gland

hypothalamus

Works in conjunction with the pituitary gland to oversee and regulate hormone releases

adernal gland

located at the top of each kidney, regulates mood, energy levels, and dealing with stress

Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to quickly deal with stress and emergencies 

thyroid gland

produces hormones to control metabolism and protein synthesis

regulates iodine like parathyroid gland

parathyroid gland

 produces hormones to break down calcium

regulates iodine like thyroid

pancreas gland

located under stomach, releases both digestive and endocrine chemicals

Produces insulin to manage glucose levels, which relate to energy and metabolism

pineal gland

located near the thalamus, releases melatonin to regulate sleep

ovaries and testes

Sex related endocrine glands that produces hormones involved in sexual development and reproduction

Men have two testes, women have two ovaries

Important in regulating sexual characteristics and behaviors in men and women 

brain damage

Plasticity- the ability of the brain to adapt

The brain’s ability of plasticity varies based on severity of injury (damage vs. destruction) and age of person (younger is better)

brain repair

Collateral sprouting- adjacent nerves grow new axons to make new connections

Substitution of function- a different region of the brain takes over for the damaged system

neurogenesis - new neurons are created 

• Only seen in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb

• Various therapeutic drugs and exercises are being used to possibly extend neurogenesis

brain implants

Adding brain tissues (usually from the fetal stage of development) to the brain and ct generations.

These fetal neurons are most likely to grow and make new connections

Also can be done with stem cells from the blastocyst embryonic stage

Stem cells might also be used to regrow other neurons

brain lesioning

permanent disruption of brain tissue which can be removed and studied

EEG

Electroencephalogram- measures brain wave activity to assess possible brain damage or abnormal brain electrical surges/activity. Used for sleep studies

• Gives a general idea of where the brain activity is

• Noninvasive 

Single unit recording

using a probe (microelectrode) into the brain to analyze a single neuron in the brain

• Invasive 

x-rays

static 2d images

CAT/CT scans

computerized axial tomography- static 3d image from x rays

PET scan

• positron-emission tomography- uses dyed (radioactive) glucose to see usage in the brain in live time

  • Minimally invasive; sometimes there's an IV insert

MRI scan

magnetic resonance imaging- static 3d image using magnetic force

fMRI scan Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

creates a live time image of the brain in action

TMS Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

using magnetic pulses to temporarily disrupt brain activity in a  part of the brain

Genes and DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid- molecules that carry genetic information 

Genes- short parts of chromosomes that are made of DNA

We have about 20,500 genes from each parent in our chromosomes = 20,500 gene pairs

Dominant and Recessive

Some gene pairs have a dominant and recessive component, where to be recessive both genes must be recessive (eye color, hair color)

Personality and intelligence might also have dominant and recessive, but spread over many gene pairs (polygenic inheritance)

natural selection

Process in which organism survive and reproduce because of a genetic advantage (Charles Darwin)

Genotype

genetic makeup

phenotype

observable characteristics

sensation

The process of receiving stimuli (information) from the environment via your nerves

perception

• Process of organizing and interpreting sensations

• Often a subjective process (what tastes good/ smells good/ looks good, feels good)

• Also varies in intensity by individual 

bottom up vs top down

Taking in information and sending it to the brain (button up) vs. sensing what will happen due to past experience (top down)

Example: a color of food makes us think of it in a certain way (top down). How the food actually tastes (bottom up)

sensory receptors

• Special cells that detect stimuli and hand it off to afferent nerves to send to the brain 

• Since nerves are “all-or-nothing” intensity is transmitted by frequency 

• Different energy is transmitted by different senses

• Photoreception

• Mechanoreception

• Chemoreception

photoreception

sight

mechanoreception

hearing and touch

chemoreception

smell and taste

synaesthesia

sensations can mix

phantom limb

to sense things that aren’t there

thresholds

Same as varying in intensity by individuals

absolute thresholds

minimum level of a stimulus that is still detectable

• Psychologists use the 50% marker of what absolute threshold is

difference threshold

 the smallest amount of difference between two stimuli thar can be detected 

• uses the 50% marker of detection

weber’s law

Difference is best measured in percentage, not quantity

subliminal perception

Information below our conscious awareness, but still recorded by the brain (subliminal messaging)

Related to selective attention