rhetorical handbook

connotation vs denotation

An idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or thing vs. Literal definition of a word.

pedantic vs simple

Language that is academic sounding, characterized by a narrow, often ostentatious concern for book learning and formal rules vs pure, easy, plain, basic language

monosyllabic vs polysyllabic

One syllable vs. more than one syllable.

Euphonious vs. cacophonic

Pleasing or agreeable to the ear vs. discordant, unpleasant sounding, jarring.

Literal vs. Figurative

What you see vs. what you get from language, tone, symbol, etc.

Active vs. Passive

Subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action rather than a state of being vs. subject is the object of the action or the effect of the verb.

Overstated vs. understated

Exaggerated vs. expressed with restraint, lack of emphasis.

Colloquial vs. formal

Informal, conversational vs. formal, proper language.

Non-Standard-Slang/Jargon

Not adhering to the standard, usually associated with a language variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups

alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds

Onomatopoeia

the use of words which in their pronunciation suggest their meaning. "Hiss," for example, when spoken is intended to resemble to sound of steam or a snake.

Basic

Subject + verb + object

Interrupted

A sentence that is interrupted by a parenthetical aside

inverted

Begin with a part of speech other than the subject. These inverted sentence patterns are used sometimes to delay revealing what the sentence is about and sometimes to create tension or suspense. Still other times, these patterns can be used to connect ideas between sentences more clearly. Ex: "It was always pleasant 'crossing bridges in Paris'"

Listing

A sentence with multiple phrases that create a list.

Cumulative/loose

Begins with subject and verb and adds modifying elements at end.

Periodic

Opens with modifiers, withholds subject and verb until the end.

Parallelism-Antithesis

Establishing a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure.

Parallelism-Chiasmus

A crossing parallelism, where the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced or paralleled by the first part, only in reverse order.

Parallelism-balanced

Expressing parallel or like ideas-- often compound.

Declarative sentence

a sentence that makes a statement or declaration

imperative sentence

gives a command

exclamatory sentence

makes an exclamation

Interrogative

asks a question

Simple sentence

A sentence consisting of one independent clause and no dependent clause

compound sentence

two or more independent clauses

complex sentence

A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause

Compound-complex

a sentence having two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Ellipsis

in a sentence, the omission of a word or words replaced by three periods

Asyndeton

omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words

Anadiplosis

repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause

Epistrophe

Repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. Counterpart of anaphora

Polysyndeton

Deliberate use of many conjunctions. Structurally the opposite of asyndeton

Parenthetical aside

consists of a word, phrase, or whole sentence inserted as an aside in the middle of another sentence

Colon

a punctuation mark (:) used to divide distinct but related sentence components such as clauses in which the second elaborates on the first, or to introduce a list, quotation, or speech

Semicolon

a punctuation mark (';') used to connect independent clauses

dashes

A punctuation mark (—) used to indicate a sudden break in thought, to set off parenthetical material

Allegory (Genre)

A form of extended metaphor in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative are equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself.

autobiography (Genre)

The biography of a person written by that person.

Biography (Genre)

an account of a person's life written by another person

Chronicle (Genre)

An extended account of historical events without interpretation or comment.

Diary (Genre)

a daily written record of (usually personal) experiences and observations

Essay (Genre)

A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author; analytic or interpretive.

Fiction (Genre)

a literary work based on the imagination and not necessarily on fact

Non-fiction (Genre)

A work that draws its information from history or fact, rather than the imagination.

Parody (Genre)

a literary form in which the style of an author or particular work is mocked in its style for the sake of comic effect

Prose (Genre)

Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech.

Satire (Genre)

A literary work that criticizes human misconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies. Usually intended as a moral criticism directed against the injustice of social wrongs

Sermon (Genre)

An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy.

stream-of-consciousness (Genre)

a style of writing in which the author tries to reproduce the random flow of thoughts in the human mind

Allusion (Rhetorical strategy)

An indirect or passing reference to some event person place or artistic work the nature and relevance of which is not explained by the writer but relies on the reader's familiarity with what is thus mentioned.

Ambiguity(Rhetorical strategy)

Something of doubtful meaning; an expression whose meaning cannot be determined from its context, may have more than one meaning

Anachronism (Rhetorical strategy)

the representation of someone as existing or something as happening other than chronological, proper, or historical order

Aphorism (Rhetorical strategy)

A brief statement which expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation.

Audience (Rhetorical strategy)

the listener, viewer, or reader of a text

Invective (Rhetorical strategy)

abusive language

Juxtaposition (Rhetorical strategy)

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize comparisons or, usually, contrasts

Malapropism (Rhetorical strategy)

An incorrect usage of a word, usually with comic effect.

rhetorical question (Rhetorical strategy)

A question asked merely for rhetorical effect and not requiring an answer

Sensory detail (Rhetorical strategy)

An item used to appeal to the sense (sight, taste, touch, etc)

Shift (Rhetorical strategy)

A general term in linguistics for any slight alteration in a word's meaning, or the creation of an entirely new word by changing the use of an expression.

Tone (Rhetorical strategy)

A writer's attitude toward his or her reader and subject; his/her mood or moral view

Point of view (Rhetorical strategy)

The way in which a narrative is told: First person (I me, we); second person (you, your); third person (he, she, it). It is also the narrator or speaker's position on the topic.

Theme-Thesis (Rhetorical strategy)

The message conveyed by a literary work

Voice (Rhetorical strategy)

The textual features, such as diction and sentence structure, that convey a writer's or speaker's persona.

Analogy

A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love.

Cliché

a phrase or opinion that is overused and betrays a lack of original thought.

Conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects.

Epithet

an adjective or descriptive phrase expressing a quality characteristic of the person or thing mentioned.

Euphemism

An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant

Hyperbole

exaggeration used for emphasis

Imagery

the collection of images within a literary work.

Verbal irony

A figure of speech in which what is said is the opposite of what is meant

situational irony

An outcome that turns out to be very different from what was expected

extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work and drawn out beyond the usual word or phrase.

Metonymy

Another form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche, in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely associated with (but not an actual part of) the subject with which it is to be compared.

Oxymoron

a paradox reduced to two words

Paradox

a statement that seems contradictory but is actually true

Personification

A figure of speech in which an object or animal is given human feelings, thoughts, or attitudes

Pun

A play on words

Simile

A comparison using "like" or "as"

Synaesthesia

A condition in which one type of stimulation evokes the sensation of another, as when the hearing of a sound produces the visualization of a color. A sensation felt in one part of the body as a result of stimulus applied to another, as in referred pain. The descriptions of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.

Synecdoche

a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa

Understatement

Expressing an idea with less emphasis or in a lesser degree than is the actual case

argument

A way of reasoning where a subject is proved correct/incorrect

Ethos

a rhetorical appeal that focuses on the speaker/writers credibility

Pathos

emotional appeal

Logos

an appeal based on logic or reason

Claim

An assertion, usually supported by evidence

Deductive reasoning (syllogism)

Reasoning that utilizes elements of persuasion by asserting a claim; consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

inductive reasoning

Reasoning that begins by citing a number of specific instances or examples and then shows how collectively they constitute a general principle.

Evidence/data

Support from a claim/assertion

Warrant

An assumption that there is a connection between evidence and claim

ad hominem argument

An attack on another person instead of their point of view

Begging the question

The situation that results when a writer or speaker constructs an argument on an assumption that the audience does not accept.

doubtful authority

The authority is not an expert, their colleagues disagree, or the reference to the authority is out of context of the situation

Either/or reasoning

An argument that something complex can be looked at in only two different ways

False analogy

Comparing two things that are irrelevant, do not pose a valid comparison

Hasty Generalization

Not enough support for the inductive reasoning used