AP Psychology (Test 1)

Modules 0.1-0.6 + 2.3-2.7

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Peer Reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiability

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.

Operational definitions

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

Replicate

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Social Desirability Bias

bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

Self-Report Bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole _____.)

Correlate

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

Variables

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Scatterplots

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Illusory Correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Regression Toward The Mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average.

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Randomly Assign

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Single-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Independent Variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Experimenter Bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.

Dependent Variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Quantitative Research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

Qualitative Research

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.

Informed Consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debrief

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Percentile Rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

Skewed

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize — to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-Analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Statistically Significant

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.

Effect Size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the _____, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Encode

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning.

Store

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieve

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Parallel Processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Short-Term Memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central Executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological Loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

Long-Term Potentiation(LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

Explicit Memories

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.”

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

Implicit Memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Echoic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

Shallow Processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

Deep Processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Semantic

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is e____ memory).

Episodic

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is s_____ memory).

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage.

Memory Consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

Flashbulb Memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

Encoding Specificity Principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

Mood Congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

Serial Position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect).

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

Anterograde Amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past.

Proactive Interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

Repress

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Reconsolodation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

Misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

Source Amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). _______ is at the heart of many false memories.

Deja Vu(Inward accents on e and a)

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.