Johns Hopkins Introduction to Psychology Firestone Test #1 Vocab

neurons

cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks

cell body

the part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive

dendrite

the part of a neuron that receives information from there neurons and relays it to the cell body

axon

the part of a neuron that carries information o other neurons, muscles, or glands

myelin sheath

an insulating layer of fatty material which covers axons, facilitating electrochemical transmission

glial cells

support cells found in the nervous system

synapse

the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another

sensory neurons

neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles that produce movement

interneurons

neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other neurons

resting potential

the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

action potential

an electric signal that is conducted along a neuron's axon to a synapse

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

terminal buttons

knoblike structures that branch out from an axon

neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites

receptors

parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and initiate or prevent a new electric signal

hindbrain

an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord

medulla

an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

reticular formation

a brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal

cerebellum

a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills

pons

a brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

tectum

a part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment

tegmentum

a part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal

cerebral cortex

the outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and divided into two hemispheres

subcortical structures

areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain

thalamus

a subcortical structure that relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex

hypothalamaus

a subcortical structure that regulated body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior

pituitary gland

the "master gland" of the body's hormone producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

limbic system

a group of forebrain structures including the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory

hippocampus

a structure critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex

amygdala

a part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particular the formation of emotional memories

basal ganglia

a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements

corpus callosum

a thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

occipital lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

parietal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch

temporal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language

frontal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

mirror neurons

neurons that are active when an animal performs a behavior, such as reaching for or manipulating an object, an are also activated when another animal observes that animal performing the same behavior

electroencephalogram (EEG)

a device used to record electrical activity in the brain

learning

the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

habituation

a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

sensitization

a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

classical conditioning

a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that natural produces a response

unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

unconditioned response

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned simulus

a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US

conditioned response

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

acquisition

the phase of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented together

second-order conditioning

conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the unconditioned stimulus in an earlier procedure

extinction

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

generalization

term describing how a conditioned response is observed even thought the conditioned stimulus is slightly different from the conditioned stimulus used during acquisition

discrimination

the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

biological preparedness

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

law of effect

behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated

operant behavior

behaviors that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

reinforcer

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

punisher

any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

fixed-interval schedule (FI)

an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made

variable-interval schedule (VI)

an operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

variable-ratio schedule (VR)

an operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement I based on a particular average number of responses

intermittent reinforcement

an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

intermittent reinforcement effect

the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resits extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

shaping

learning that realists from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

latent learning

process by which something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

cognitive map

a mental representation of the physical features of the environment

language

a system for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and convey meaning

grammar

a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages

phoneme

the smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech rather than as random noise

phonological rules

a set of rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds

morphemes

the smallest meaningful units of language; comprised of phonemes

morphological rules

a set of rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words

syntactical rules

a set of rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences

deep structure

the meaning of a sentence

surface structure

the wording of a sentence

fast mapping

the fact that children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure

telegraphic speech

speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words

nativist theory

the view that language development I best explained as an innate, biological capacity

language acquisition device (LAD)

a collection of processes that facilitate language learning

genetic dysphasia

a syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence

aphasia

difficulty in producing or comprehending language

linguistic relativity hypohtesis

the proposal that language shapes the nature of thought

soma

cell body of a neuron

Purkinje Cells

flat cells in sequential planes, in the cerebellar cortex, parallel to one another

pyramid cells

special neurons with long dendrites along the cerebral cortex

bipolar cells

special neurons with one axon and one dendrite

conduction

describes movement of electrical signals within neurons which travel from the dendrite through the cell body and axons

transmission

describes movement of electric signals from neuron to neuron across synapses

saltatory conduction

describes the movement of a signal which jumps across the nodes of the myelin sheath

phrenology

archaic psychological practice of studying the bumps on the surface of the skull to understand the workings of the brain

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience; refers to the capacity of a neuron without a purpose to learn new skills

equipotentiality

the brain's capacity to replace non-functioning parts

striatum

area of brain the forebrain responsible for posture and movement

commissures

bundles of axons that connect hemispheres of the brain

gyri and sulci

the ridges and grooves of the cerebral cortex which increase its overall surface area

fusiform face area

a region in the temporal lobe of the brain that primarily focuses on facial recognition

vegetative state

a state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the person is otherwise unresponsive