Final Exam Medical Terminology Concepts

What are the primary functions of the urinary system?

Maintaining homeostasis by blood filtration, maintaining proper balance of water, salts, and other substances, maintaining blood pH, and excreting waste products via urine.

What are the secondary functions of the urinary system?

Production of renin, erythropoietin, and prostaglandins, degrading insulin, and metabolism of Vitamin-D.

What is the path of urine from the kidneys to the urinary meatus?

Kidneys → Ureters → Bladder → Urethra → Urinary meatus.

What are the roles of the kidneys in the urinary system?

Filter blood to remove waste and excess substances.

What are the roles of the ureters in the urinary system?

Transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

What are the roles of the bladder in the urinary system?

Store urine until it is excreted.

What are the roles of the urethra in the urinary system?

Carry urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.

What are the roles of the urinary meatus in the urinary system?

The external opening for urine excretion.

What is the function of the glomerulus in the nephron?

Filter water and small particles, such as ions and urea, from blood.

What are the functions of the tubules and Loop of Henle in the nephron?

Reabsorb ions, water, nutrients, maintain blood pH, and remove toxins from blood.

What is the role of the vasculature in the nephron?

A large network of blood vessels that carry blood to be filtered.

What is the function of the collecting duct in the nephron?

Moves urine to the ureters.

What components are normally found in urine?

Water, urea, creatinine, ions.

Which components are not normally found in urine?

Sugar glycosuria (urine smells sweet)

◦ Ketones ketonuria (may be an indicator of ketoacidosis, a complication of diabetes)

◦ Blood hematuria

◦ Albumin albuminuria

◦ Most proteins proteinuria

What are the therapeutic interventions we discussed that are associated with the urinary system?

Renal transplant: kidney transplant

Cystectomy: surgical excision of the bladder

Nephr(o)/ureter(o)/cyst(o) - lith(o) - -tomy: surgical removal of stones

◦ Lith(o) = stone

◦ -tomy = incision

Catheter: inserted through urethra to the bladder for a variety of urinary tract issues

Diuretics: drugs used to increase water excretion

What are the main features of the female reproductive system?

Ovaries produce oocytes and hormones; Fallopian tubes transport ova; Uterus nurtures fetus; Cervix allows passage during childbirth; Vagina connects cervix to external environment.

What is menorrhea?

Heavy bleeding during menstruation.

What is Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

Symptoms including bloating, headaches, and mood swings.

What is Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)?

Cysts on ovaries causing infertility due to hormonal disturbance.

What is ectopic pregnancy?

Fetus develops outside the uterus.

What is endometriosis?

Endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus, causing pain and infertility.

What is hormone replacement therapy (HRT)?

Treatment with hormones when the body stops producing enough, usually during menopause.

What is a hysterectomy?

Removal of the uterus.

What is colpoplasty?

Vaginal reconstruction or repair.

What is oophoropexy?

Fixation of ovaries prone to twisting.

What is tubal ligation?

Blocking or severing of the fallopian tubes.

What is a digital rectal examination (DRE)?

A physical assessment to assess the prostate and rectum.

Where does fertilization occur?

In the fallopian tubes.

Where does the blastocyst implant after fertilization?

Into the endometrium.

What does 'gravida' refer to?

The number of pregnancies.

What does 'para' refer to?

The number of pregnancies reaching viable gestational age.

What are the four steps of childbirth?

Cervical dilation, expulsion of the infant, expulsion of the placenta, postpartum period.

What laboratory tests can screen for fetal abnormalities?

Measurement of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) tests for pregnancy

◦ Ultrasound/sonography

Laboratory tests:

◦ Amniocentesis to screen for fetus abnormalities

◦ Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

What is preeclampsia?

Acute high blood pressure in pregnant women.

What is abruptio placentae?

Premature separation of placenta from uterine wall.

What is placenta previa?

Abnormal placental implantation covering the cervix.

What is dystocia?

Abnormal or difficult labor.

What are the Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test and Prostate biopsy?

Blood test for prostate cancer

Remove tissue from prostate for testing for prostate cancer

What is stillbirth?

death of a fetus before or during delivery

Salpingectomy

Removal of uterine tube(s)

Salpingostomy

Create a new opening into uterine tube

Which various "-scopies" can be used to identify problems associated with the female reproductive system?

Colposcopy, hysteroscopy, laparoscopy...

◦ Reminder: Colp(o) = vagina, hyster(o) = uterus, lapar(o) = abdominal wall

Where is sperm produced? How does it get from its production location to the urinary meatus?

Testes (seminiferous tubules) → Epididymis → Vas deferens → Ejaculatory duct (with seminal vesicle fluid) → Prostate gland → Urethra → Urinary meatus

What are the functions of the musculoskeletal system?

Support: providing form and shape for body

Protection of soft body parts

Movement

Blood cell formation and storage

What are the types of bone marrow?

Two types of bone marrow (soft tissue that fills the cavities of bones):

◦ Red: formation of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets

◦ Yellow: storage of fats

Yellow bone marrow replaces red bone marrow over time

Types of bone

Five types of bones

◦ Long (Humerus)

◦ Short (Carpals)

◦ Flat (Sternum)

◦ Sesamoid (Patella)

◦ Irregular (Vertebra)

Which bones belong to the axial skeleton? The appendicular?

Axial

◦ Skull, spinal column, sternum, and ribs

Appendicular

◦ Bones of extremities, shoulder, and pelvic girdle

What are the 5 regions of the spine?

cervical vertebrae

thoracic vertebrae

lumbar vertebrae

Sacrum

coccyx

How do tendons and ligaments differ?

Tendons: bands of strong, fibrous

tissue that attach muscles to bone

Ligaments: connect bone or cartilage

and serve to support and strengthen joints

Why do infants have more cartilage than adults?

They have more initial bones

What are the three classifications of joints? Be able to give examples of each.

Joint (articulation): place of union between

two or more bones

• Cartilage is found in joints

Three classifications of joints

Immobile - Fibrous

Slightly mobile - Cartilaginous

Freely mobile - Synovial

What is the difference between strains, sprains, dislocations, and fractures?

Strains (damage to the muscles or tendons)

◦ Sprains (ligaments around a joint)

◦ Dislocations (displacement of a bone from a joint)

◦ Fractures: (break in a bone)

Types of Fractures

Impacted fracture: one bone fragment is firmly driven into the fractured end of another fragment

◦ Comminuted fracture: bone is broken into many small fragments

◦ Spiral fracture: bone is twisted apart

◦ Transverse fracture: the break in the bone is at right angles to the

axis of the bone

Know the following conditions: osteoporosis, osteosclerosis, scoliosis, polydactylism, and syndicalism.

Metabolic disturbances examples:

Osteoporosis: bone becomes LESS dense

Osteosclerosis: bone becomes MORE dense

Congenital defects examples:

Scoliosis: Lateral curvature of the spine

Polydactylism: Extra digits

Syndactylism: Webbing between digits

What is a lumbar puncture (spinal tap)?

Lumbar puncture (for aspiration of blood/pus, injection of drugs, or introducing anesthetic), aka "spinal tap"

Anatomy of bone tissue

Compact (cortical) bone: beneath the periosteum

◦ Protection and strength

◦ Spongy (trabecular) bone: inner portion of bone

◦ Contains both red and yellow marrow

Anatomy of Bone

Epiphysis: End of the bone, contains both spongy and compact bone

Articular cartilage: Provides a smooth surface for movement of joints

Diaphysis: The shaft of the bone

Periosteum: A tough outer membrane

How do sensory neurons and motor neurons differ?

Afferent system

◦ Sensory neurons "sense" something (like a

smell) and relay that information to the CNS

Efferent system

◦ Motor neurons take the information from

the CNS and tell the body to move or react accordingly

What is the function of neurons? Neuroglia?

Neurons:

conduct impulses to, within, and from CNS

Neuroglia (or glial cells):

provide support and protection

Which procedures would be appropriate in diagnosing diseases of the nervous system?

Levels of consciousness (LOC)

Long-term, recent, and immediate memory

Deep tendon reflex (DTR) to assess neurologic and muscular damage, assessed with the use of a reflex hammer

Lumbar puncture/spinal tap: Examination of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for brain or spinal cord injuries or MS

What is trigeminal neuralgia?

Pain in the head that feels similar to an electric shock

• Chronic

• Persisting for a long time or constantly

recurring

• Mostly affects women over 50

• A single touch of the skin surrounding the trigeminal nerve can be excruciating

• Possibly due to compression of the nerve, but cause is unknown

What are the different types of paralysis?

Pain in the head that feels similar to an electric shock

• Chronic

• Persisting for a long time or constantly

recurring

• Mostly affects women over 50

• A single touch of the skin surrounding the trigeminal nerve can be excruciating

• Possibly due to compression of the nerve, but cause is unknown

How do shingles come about?

People get shingles when the varicella-

zoster virus (VZV), which causes chickenpox,

reactivates in their bodies after they have already had chickenpox

The most common long-term complication is neuralgia

What is MS? What causes it?

Progressive degenerative disease that affects myelin sheath and conductive pathways of CNS

o Myelin is there to maintain a difference in

charge between the inside and outside of the nerve fiber. Without it, there is an improper exchange of ions and the electrical signal cannot reach the muscle to tell it to move.

o Less myelin means electrical signal cannot propagate down the axon properly, leading to muscle weakness

Symptoms depend on severity and location of lesions

Cause is still unknown

Know the definitions of the surgical interventions discussed.

Surgical interventions for the nervous system may include decompression surgery, which relieves pressure on nerves, and neurosurgery, which involves operating on the brain or spinal cord to treat conditions like tumors or injuries.

Know the different types of headaches discussed.

Cephalgia: headache; 3 types

◦ Muscle contraction (tension) headache

◦ Like a tight band around the head

◦ Cluster headache

◦ Very painful, unilateral, reoccurring short headaches

◦ Migraine headache

◦ Also reoccurring but are throbbing headaches and usually last longer than cluster headaches, very sensitive to light

Blepharoptosis, or ptosis

Drooping eyelid

Cataracts

Lens becomes cloudy, can lead to blindness; treated by replacing damaged lens with an artificial intraocular lens (IOL)

Glaucoma

Increased pressure in eye (intraocular pressure); treated with eyedrops, oral meds, or surgery

Astigmatism

Cannot focus on image due to distortions of the curvature of lens or cornea

Myopia

Nearsightedness - can see objects near to you clearly, but objects farther away are blurry

Hyperopia

Farsightedness - can see distant objects clearly, but objects nearby may be blurry

Amblyopia

Lazy eye, reduced vision in one eye

Photophobia

Sensitivity of eyes to the light

Blepharitis

Inflammation of eyelid

Macular degeneration (MD)

Degeneration of the retina, resulting in a large black spot in the vision or blindness

How does sound travel into your ear and get to your brain?

Sound auditory canal eardrum ossicles cochlea nerves brain

What would someone go to an audiologist for? What can the audiologist do to diagnose problems and how would they read an audiogram?

Audiologist: One who studies hearing loss and balance disorders

An audiometry procedure uses an audiometer to produce an audiogram, which tells an audiologist how well a patient can hear

An otoscope can be used to look for a ruptured eardrum

Anotia

Congenital absence of one or both ears

Otosclerosis

Hardening of the auditory ossicles leading to decreased vibration transmission and hearing loss

Tinnitus

Ear noise, 'ringing of the ears'

Vertigo

Dizziness

What are some of the treatments we discussed for deafness? For hard-of-hearing people?

cochlear implants, treatments include hearing aids, antibiotics,

over-the-counter cerumen buildup cleaners

How do endocrine and exocrine glands differ?

Exocrine: ducted; secretions are onto an external or internal body surface

◦ Example: sweat gland, salivary gland, Bartholin's glands

◦ Endocrine: ductless; secretions are into bloodstream to act on a far away structure

◦ Example: thyroid gland, pituitary gland

Which hormones did we discuss that the pituitary could store?

Growth Hormone (GH)

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

ADH

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Stimulates thyroid to secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)

T3 & T4

Regulate body metabolism, temperature, normal growth and development, and calcium storage

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Increases blood calcium levels

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Affects volume of water in the blood

Oxytocin

Released just before childbirth; causes uterine contractions and breast milk production

Somatotropic hormone (STH)

Stimulates body growth (aka growth hormone)

Progesterone

Important female hormone produced mainly by the ovaries and regulates the endometrium in preparation for a potential pregnancy

Testosterone

Regulates male fertility, muscle growth, and other physiological features

How do hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism differ?

Hyperthyroidism: increased metabolism and excitability, moist skin, weight loss, and rapid pulse

◦ Exophthalmos: marked protrusion of the eyeballs

◦ Grave's disease: Immune system attacks thyroid, making it overactive

Hypothyroidism

◦ Cretinism (childhood): insufficient T4; arrested physical and mental development

◦ Myxedema (adult): insufficient T4 and T3; extreme swelling

◦ Hashimoto's disease: can cause hypothyroidism; autoimmune disease

What are therapeutic interventions associated with Hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism: Surgery, radioactive materials, or antihyperthyroid drugs

Hypothyroidism: Usually treated with levothyroxine, a synthetic T4

What are the definitions of each of the pathologies of the endocrine system?

Gynecomastia: Excessive growth of male

mammary glands, usually caused by excessive estrogen production

Hirsutism: Excessive growth of hair

Gigantism and dwarfism: Abnormal STH production

Goiter: Enlarged thyroid gland, symptoms include swelling in neck

Diabetes mellitus (DM)

◦ Type I: Insulin deficiency

◦ Type II (adult onset): Insulin resistance

What is the function of the integumentary system? (DERMA)

D Vitamin synthesis

Elimination of wastes through perspiration

Regulation of body temperature through perspiration

Makes information about the environment available to the brain

Acts as a barrier to pathogens

Which diagnostic tests can be used to diagnose problems in the integumentary system?

Skin biopsies

◦ Lab cultures

◦ Skin tests (allergy and

tuberculosis)

◦ Tissue or fluid examination

(histology)

◦ Sweat test (for cystic fibrosis),

tests for abnormal Cl-

concentrations in the sweat

Know the definition of all the pathologies for the integumentary system

Ichthyosis: dry, scaly skin; "fish skin"; hereditary

◦ Xeroderma: dry skin; non-hereditary

◦ Scleroderma: hardening and thickening of the skin

◦ Albinism: partial or total absence of pigment in the skin

◦ Cyanosis: a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes

◦ Pediculosis: Infestation of lice

◦ Jaundice: Yellowing of skin due to abnormal liver function

primary lesions

Primary lesions are initial reactions to an underlying problem

◦ Macules: a non-raised, small dark spot on the skin (e.g. freckles and rashes)

◦ Papules: A solid raised legion less than 1 cm in diameter (e.g. moles)

◦ Vesicles, bullae, and pustules: blisters containing fluid; name depends on size and

quantity (e.g. acne)

◦ Plaque: A flat, dry, patch (e.g. dandruff)