General Chemistry and Organic Chemistry Lecture Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering general chemistry principles, atomic theory, quantum mechanics, periodic trends, organic chemistry, and chemical reactions based on provided lecture notes.

Bose-einstein condensate (BEC)

A state of matter that exists at extremely cold temperatures and is referred to as a super atom.

Intensive Property (II)

Properties that are independent of the amount of substance, such as Boiling Point, Freezing Point, Density, and Viscosity.

Extensive Property (E - D)

Properties that are dependent on the amount of substance, such as Mass, Volume, Energy, and Entropy.

Physical Property

A property that can be observed without changing the substance into another substance, such as density or mass.

Chemical Property

A property that must be changed to another substance to be observed, such as flammability or reactivity with acid.

Law of conservation of mass

One of the laws that support Dalton’s Atomic Theory regarding the stability of mass in a system.

Isotones

Atoms that have the same number of neutrons.

Isobars

Atoms that have the same mass number but different atomic numbers; also refers to systems with the same pressure.

Isoelectronic

Refers to species that have the same number of electrons.

Saturated solution

A solution containing the maximum quantity of solutes possible for dissolution.

Diatomic Molecules

Molecules composed of only two atoms, specifically Hydrogen, Oxygen, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Fluorine, and Nitrogen.

Wavelength ($\lambda$)

The distance between two points in a wave.

Frequency ($\nu$)

The number of waves passing a given point per unit of time.

Electromagnetic radiation formula

The equation $c = \lambda \nu$ where $c$ is the speed of light.

Principle quantum # (n)

Describes size and energy where $n \geq 1$; as $n$ increases, size increases and energy decreases.

Angular momentum quantum # (l)

Describes the shape of the orbital ($s=0$, $p=1$, $d=2$, $f=3$) and has values up to $n-1$.

Magnetic quantum # (ml)

A whole number ranging from $-l \leq ml \leq l$.

Spin quantum # (ms)

Represents electron spin as either $+\frac{1}{2}$ (clockwise) or $-\frac{1}{2}$ (counterclockwise).

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle electron limits

The maximum electrons per subshell are $s=2$, $p=6$, and $d=10$.

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy needed to remove an electron; it decreases down a group and increases across a period.

Electron Affinity

The energy released when an electron is added; it decreases down a group and increases across a period.

Bond Order

The number of shared electrons between two atoms.

AX2 Molecular Geometry

A linear arrangement with a bond angle of $180^{\circ}$.

AX3 Molecular Geometry

A trigonal planar arrangement with a bond angle of $120^{\circ}$.

AX4 Molecular Geometry

A tetrahedral arrangement with a bond angle of $109.5^{\circ}$.

Electrolyte

A substance that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.

Strong Acids

Includes $HCl$, $HBr$, $HI$, $HClO_3$, $HClO_4$, $HNO_3$, and $H_2SO_4$.

Arrhenius Acid/Base

An acid produces $H^{+}$ and a base produces $OH^{-}$.

Bronsted-Lowry Acid/Base

An acid is an $H^{+}$ donor and a base is an $H^{+}$ acceptor.

Lewis Acid/Base

An acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electron-pair donor.

LEORA

Stands for Loses Electron, Oxidation, Reducing Agent.

GEROA

Stands for Gains Electron, Reduction, Oxidating Agent.

Enthalpy ($\Delta H$)

A measure of heat gained or lost; positive value indicates endothermic and negative indicates exothermic.

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of $1\,g$ of a substance by $1^{\circ}C$ or $1\,K$.

Colligative Properties

Properties of a solution that depend on the ratio of the number of solutes to the number of solvent particles, not the chemical nature.

Ebullioscopy

The study or measurement of boiling point elevation by adding a nonvolatile solute.

Cryoscopy

The measurement of freezing point depression.

Colloids

Heterogeneous solutions with small, light suspended particles like agar, gelatin, or fog.

Le Chatelier’s Principle

States that equilibrium changes in response to pressure, temperature, or concentration shifts.

Equivalence point

The point in a titration where the acid and base concentrations are equal.

J.J. Thomson

The scientist who discovered the electron and proposed the Plum pudding model.

Ernest Rutherford

Conducted the gold foil experiment and discovered protons.

Stereoisomers

Compounds with the same molecular formula and sequence of atoms but different 3D orientations (e.g., Cis/Trans).

Enantiomers

Non-superimposable mirror images.

Dextrorotatory (D)

A rotation designated as (+), moving clockwise, or (R).

Levatatory (L)

A rotation designated as (-), moving counter-clockwise, or (S).

Pyrolysis / Cracking

The process where hydrocarbons with higher molecular weight break down with heat.

Glycols

Alcohols that contain two or more $OH$ groups.

Formalin

A solution of formaldehyde, which is very toxic to microorganisms.

Ethers

Compounds formed by dehydrating two alcohols, where oxygen is sandwiched between two organic groups.

Sucrose

A disaccharide composed of Glucose + Fructose.

Glycogen

The form in which animals store glucose.

Peptidoglycan

The substance that constitutes the cell wall of bacteria and determines the shape of the plasma membrane.

Saponification

The chemical reaction used to derive soap from fats and oils.

Benedict’s Solution

An indicator for simple carbohydrates that turns brick red in a positive test.

Biuret Solution

An indicator for protein that turns violet or black in a positive test.

Sudan IV

An indicator for lipids that turns reddish-orange in a positive test.

Most abundant element on earth

Oxygen.

Avogadro’s #

The number of atoms or formula units in a mole, equal to $6.02 \times 10^{23}$.

Planck’s constant (h)

A fundamental constant used in energy equations, valued at $6.626 \times 10^{-34}$.

Ideal Gas Equation

The relation $PV = nRT$.

Boyle’s Law

The relation $P_1V_1 = P_2V_2$.

Charles Law

The relation $\frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2}$.

Molarity (M)

Calculated as $\text{mol of solute} / \text{vol of sol in L}$.