2.8

Prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts

Schemas

cognitive frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge

Assimilation

the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas

Accommodation

the cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information

Algorithms

step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or 'rules of thumb' that simplify decision-making by reducing the cognitive burden

Representativeness heuristic

cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases

Availability heuristic

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision

Mental set

a tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past, which can sometimes prevent seeing alternative solutions

Priming

exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention

Framing

how information is presented influences decisions and perceptions

Gambler's fallacy

cognitive bias that occurs when individuals believe that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes, even though each event is independent and has no bearing on future results

Sunk-cost fallacy

cognitive bias where individuals continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because they have already invested so much, even if the returns are poor or the endeavor no longer aligns with their goals

Executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Divergent thinking

a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Convergent thinking

cognitive process that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

Functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used

Testing effect

improved memory resulting from repeated retrieval of information

Metacognition

thinking about one's own thinking processes

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

G (general intelligence)

the overarching mental ability that influences performance on various cognitive tasks

Multiple intelligence

theory suggests that individuals possess different types of intelligence beyond traditional measures, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

numerical measure of an individual's cognitive abilities compared to others in their age group, typically assessed through standardized tests

Mental age

the level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

Chronological age

a person's actual age in years

Standardization

the process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for administering and scoring psychological assessments

Validity

the extent to which a test accurately measures what it is intended to measure

Construct validity

Checks if a test really measures what it's supposed to.

Predictive validity

Shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or behaviors. It measures if test scores can predict future performance accurately.

Reliability

"repeat results" consistency in test results over time and among different scorers. It assures that a test yields stable and dependable measurements.

Test-retest reliability

Assesses consistency by administering the same test to the same group twice. It measures how stable scores are over time.

Split-half reliability

Divides a test into two halves and compares scores between them. It measures internal consistency by checking if both halves yield similar results.

Stereotype threat

The phenomenon where individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.

Stereotype lift

The opposite of stereotype threat, occurs when individuals from stereotypically advantaged groups perform better on tests due to the positive expectations associated with their group.

Flynn effect

The trend of average IQ scores increasing over generations. It suggests a rise in general intelligence due to environmental and cultural factors.

Achievement tests

Assess a person's knowledge or skills in a specific area, such as academic subjects or job-related tasks. They measure what an individual has learned or accomplished.

Aptitude tests

Measure a person's potential for learning or mastering specific skills or tasks in the future. They assess innate abilities and predict future performance.

Fixed mindset

The belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed.

Growth mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort.