Psychology Exam Terminology

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

Dualism

The argument that the mind and body are acting separately and distinctly

Phrenology

The idea of examining bumps on the back of one’s skull to determine their intelligence and character traits

Functionalism

Studying the function of our consciousness rather than the structure

Structuralism

The structure of the brain and breaking down mental processes

Inheritable Traits

How hereditary traits passed down by parents influenced their abilities, character, and behavior

Gestalt Psychology

Perception was more than the sum of its parts- you have to look at the whole pattern/ whole person, object, etc.

Psychobiology

Focuses on the biological processes underlying behavior

• Nature

Behaviorism Psychology

Look at behavior and how the environment influences/ changes it

• Nurture

Cognitive Psychology

How we process, store, retrieve information and how this influences our thinking, language, problem-solving, and creativity

• Nature

Sociocultural Psychology

Focuses on social interactions and various aspects of culture

• Nurture

Humanistic Psychology

Focuses on human nature as evolving and self-directed

• Nurture

Psychodynamic Psychology

Our unconscious motivations and conflicts are responsible for our behavior

Survey

A way to gather information and data by asking a large number of people specific questions

• Quantitative

• Pro: Fast data collection

• Con: People might lie or give inaccurate information

Naturalistic Observation

Analyzation of behavior exactly how it occurred in nature

• Quantitative

• Pro: Researchers don’t manipulate behavior

• Con: no control over variables

Case Study

Thorough investigation of one person, event, or group to learn as much as possible

• Qualitative

• Pro: Very detailed information

• Con: Results might not apply to everyone

Experiments

Manipulate one thing to see how it affects another thing

• Quantitative

• Pro: Can show cause and effect

• Con: Ethical limits on what can be tested

Meta-Analysis

A statistical method used to identify patterns and relationships to come to more in-depth conclusions

• Quantitative

• Pro: Combines results from many studies

• Con: Could have researcher bias

Correlation Study

Observes of multiple variables are related without interfering with them

• Quantitative

• Pro: Shows relationships between variables

• Con: correlation doesn’t mean causation

Longitudinal Studies

Data is collected about participants over a span of years to observe characteristic changes through development

• Qualitative + Quantitative

• Pro: More accurate than a one-time study

• Con: Expensive and takes a long time

Cross-Sectional Study

Data is collected from a group of participants of various ages and compared to draw conclusions

• Quantitative

• Pro: Quick, not too expensive

• Con: Can’t prove cause and effect

Generalizability

If the results from a study can go beyond just that study. The results might not apply to a large amount of people

Quantitative Research Strategy

• Confirm or test a hypothesis

• Larger sample size

• Expressed in numbers

• Math/ statistical analysis

Qualitative Research Strategy

• Understand or explore an idea/ formulate hypothesis

• Expresses in words

• Smaller sample size

• Summarize, categorize, interpret

Scientific Method

Used to systematically investigate behaviors and mental processes

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured by the experimenter and is caused by the independent variable

Independent Variable

The variable that changes in each condition. It can either be manipulated by the experimenter or occur naturally

Hypothesis

Researcher’s prediction about the expected results of a study

Theory

Complex explanations based on assumptions about behavior collected from a large number of experimental studies

Operational Definition

Clear, specific explanation of exactly how a researcher measures or creates a variable in a study

Ethics

Moral Obligations to keep participants safe and uphold their protections

Neuron

Long, thin cells of nerve tissue that messages travel to and from the brain

Axon Terminal

Small fibres that branch out at the end of the axon. These can transmit info to another neuron

Spinal Cord

Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain

Axon

Can reach to distant areas of the nervous system. Delivers impulses to parts of the body to reach their targets

Nucleus

A cluster of neurons in the central nervous system

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord

Myelin Sheath

A white, fatty substance that insulates and protects the axon and speeds up transmission

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves branching beyond the spinal cord into the body that transmit information back and forth from the organs

Pituitary Gland

The center of control of the endocrine system that secretes a large number of hormones

Cell Body (Soma)

Integrates signals from other cells and contains DNA. Also provides support for the cell

Synapse

Between individual nerve cells where impulses are transmitted

Endocrine System

Communication system that sends chemical messages called hormones through the bloodstream

Dendrites

Short, thin fibres off the cell body that receive impulses from other neurons

Neurotransmission

Where the front end of one neuron and the back of another are close together and release impulses to transmit information

Frontal Lobe

• Located at the front of the Brain

• Associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher lever conition, and expressive language

Parietal Lobe

• Located in the middle section of the brain

• Associated with processing tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain

Temporal Lobe

• Located on the bottom section of the Brain

• Location of the primary auditory cortex

• Important for interpreting sounds and the language we hear

• Hippocampus is located here

Occipital Lobe

• Located at the back portion of the Brain

• Associated with vision

Brain Disorder

Any condition that affects the structure or function of the brain or the broader nervous system

Nature

Genetics and biology

Nurture

Environment, learning, culture

Lobotomy

• Cut and take out part of the brain

• Damaging parts of the brain causes personality changes

EEG

• Wires to scalp to monitor Neurons

• Electrical activity in the brain rises and falls rhythmically

Lesions

Cutting/ destroying part of an animal’s brain

• Parts of brain have specialization

CT

• Scan of brain with moving x-ray beams around head

• Where specifically in the brain injuries are

PET

• Captures pictures of brain and parts bring used

• Which areas of the brain activate during certain tasks

MRI

• Passing nonharmful radio waves through the brain to get image from computer

• Brain activity, structures, and where injuries or complications are

Sensation

What occurs when a stimulus activates a receptor

Perception

The organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences

Vision

Occurs when light enters the eye through the pupil, reaches the lens, and is changed by rods and cones into neuronal impulses that are routed via the optic nerve to the brain

Hearing

Results when vibrations are turned into neuronal signals that travel to the brain via the auditory nerve

Olfaction/ Smell

Occurs when gaseous molecules come into contact with smell receptors that transmit messages through the olfactory nerve to the brain

Gustation/ Taste

Occurs when chemicals in a substance stimulate receptors in taste buds on the tongue, and the information is relayed to the brain

Kinesthesis

The sense of movement and body position

Vestibular System

Regulates balance and responds to movement such as spinning and falling

Touch

Provides information about pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

Binocular Fusion

Gives us a complete view of what both eyes see, which enable us to perceive depth

Attentive Processing

Conscious processing of stimuli that considers only one part of the stimuli at a time

Preattentive Processing

Processing stimuli automatically and simultaneously

Motivation

An internal state that activates behavior and directs it towards a goal

Social Motives

The need for achievement, the fear of failure, and the fear of success - learned from our interactions with other people

Biological Motives (Motivation)

Chemical changes within our nervous system that provoke changes in behavior that helps our body return to a state of homeostasis

Instinct Theory Of Motivation

Instincts are innate tendencies that influence behavior

Drive Reduction Theory Of Motivation

Suggests that behaviors are designed to obtain something an organism needs

Incentive Theory Of Motivation

Considers the role of the environment in motivation

Cognitive Theory Of Motivation

Takes into account the way we process both internal and external factors when describing motivation

Theory Of Overjustification (Motivation)

States that a reward for performing a task increases intrinsic motivation associated with it will decrease

Achievement Motivation

Concerns the desire to set challenging goals and reaching them despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks

Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs

Believed all human beings were motivated by a need to feel competent, to win approval and recognition and to feel they achieved something

Self-Actualization (Motivation)

Fulfilling the need to achieve one’s unique potential by pursuing whatever is needed to reach that potential

Self Theory (Motivation)

Everyone wants approval or positive regard and they internalize conditions of worth

Representational Thought

Children’s ability to picture things in their minds

Imprinting

Inherited tendency of some newborn animals to follow the first moving object they see

Accommodation

Changing our schema to fit the characteristics of the new object

Zone Of Proximal Development

Children learn from watching and working with others

Principle Of Conservation

• Rule that a given quantity doesn’t change even when its appearance is changed in some way

• Occurs when children use centered thought

• Results in egocentric thinking

Socialization

Learning the rules of behavior of the culture in which you were born and grow up

Assimilation

Trying to fit a new object into an existing schema

Sex

The biological difference between females and males

Object Permanence

Stage of development when a child realizes that people and objects are independent of their own actions

Gender

Refers to the social, physical, and behavioral traits that society considers normal for men and women

Schemas

A mental representation of the world that each of us construct, apply, and change as needed

Scaffolding

Support given in the learning processes to help a student reach their goal

Moral Reasoning

Deciding what is right and what is wrong

Personality

Your distinct and enduring characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving

Trait Theories (Personality)

• Allport, Eysenck, Cattell

• Importance of stable internal characteristics

• How traits influence how we behave

Behavioral Theories (Personality)

• B. F. Skinner

• Focus on observable behavior

• Reward and punishment influence behavior

Cognitive Theories (Personality)

• Jean Piaget

• How thoughts and feelings shape personalities

Psychoanalytic Theories (Personality)

• Freud, Jung, Alder, Horney

• Importance of motives behind unconscious

• Conflicts motivate our behaviors, drives, and desires