Chapter 11: Participation in community politics

Citizen participation

The involvement of citizens in government through voting, activism, interest groups, neighborhood associations, volunteering, party work, and running for office.

Local politics

Community-level politics focused on issues that directly affect daily quality of life, such as police, potholes, property taxes, zoning, pollution, pets, and neighborhood problems.

Quality-of-life issues

Local problems that directly affect residents’ daily lives and often trigger political involvement from people who normally would not participate.

Communitarian view

The belief that direct citizen participation in community affairs builds tolerance, friendship, problem solving, and common solutions through face-to-face involvement.

Community political activism

Citizen involvement in local issues, which can encourage problem solving but can also create conflict, cynicism, intolerance, or government paralysis.

NIMBY activity

“Not in my backyard” opposition to community projects, often by neighborhoods trying to stop projects they see as harmful to their property values or lifestyle.

Volunteering as civic participation

Community service such as helping soup kitchens, shelters, mentoring programs, or local nonprofits, which builds community even when citizens do not see it as political participation.

Civic engagement

Citizen involvement in community life, including voting, joining organizations, volunteering, solving neighborhood problems, and participating in public affairs.

Local election turnout

Voter turnout in local elections is usually much lower than in state or national elections, often around 25–35 percent.

Presidential election turnout

National presidential elections usually attract much higher turnout than local elections, often around 55–60 percent of eligible voters.

Nonpartisan local elections

Local elections where candidates are not listed by political party; common in local government and associated with lower voter turnout.

Partisan local elections

Local elections where party labels appear and parties mobilize voters; these tend to produce higher turnout than nonpartisan elections.

Party allegiance in local elections

Political party loyalty usually matters less in local elections than in state or national elections, especially in smaller jurisdictions.

Group voting cues

Local voters often rely on race, ethnicity, religion, union membership, neighborhood, or group interests more than party identification.

Local campaign focus

Local campaigns often center on government outputs, such as police protection, roads, schools, parks, taxes, garbage collection, and health programs.

Zero-sum resource allocation

The idea that local government benefits for one group or area may come at the expense of another, making “who gets what” central to local politics.

Politics of place

Local political conflict based on geography, such as eastside versus westside, north versus south, or downtown business interests versus residential neighborhoods.

Candidate heterogeneity

The wider variety of candidate backgrounds in local elections, making it easier for voters to find candidates who share their race, ethnicity, gender, religion, class, or ideology.

GOTV strategies

“Get out the vote” efforts used by candidates and groups, often narrowly targeted to specific local voters or communities.

Electoral coalitions

Groups of voters joined together to support a candidate; in local politics these coalitions often shift as community demographics change.

Off-cycle elections

Local elections held separately from state or national elections, usually producing lower turnout.

On-cycle elections

Local elections held at the same time as state or national elections, which usually increase turnout and can save money.

Local media coverage

Coverage of local campaigns is limited, especially on television, which reduces voter awareness and may lower turnout.

Mayoral race coverage

Mayoral campaigns receive more media attention than county commission, city council, or school board races.

Nonpartisanship and turnout

Nonpartisan municipal elections depress voter turnout compared with partisan municipal elections.

Separate municipal elections

City elections held independently of state and national elections, which reduce turnout and increase the influence of regular voters such as seniors.

Municipal reform movement and turnout

Reform features such as nonpartisan elections, council-manager government, and separate city elections tend to reduce turnout and strengthen middle-class and older voters.

Strong mayor-council turnout effect

Large cities with strong mayor-council government and partisan elections tend to have higher local turnout.

Council-manager turnout effect

Smaller cities with council-manager government and nonpartisan elections tend to have lower turnout.

Social cleavages

Deep social divisions, especially race and ethnicity, that can increase voter turnout in municipal elections.

Social homogeneity

A community with fewer major social divisions, which is associated with lower voter interest and lower turnout.

Hot issue on the ballot

A controversial local issue that increases turnout because voters feel directly affected.

Initiative

A direct democracy process where citizens collect signatures to place a proposed law, charter change, ordinance, or policy change on the ballot.

Local initiative availability

The initiative process is available in over half of American cities.

Recall

A direct democracy process that allows voters to remove an elected official before the end of the official’s term.

Recall process

Usually begins with a petition naming the official to be removed and identifying the cause for removal.

Common recall causes

Misuse of office, failure to perform duties, unusual behavior, or unpopular conduct by an elected official.

Referendum

A direct democracy process in which voters approve or reject an issue or proposal placed on the ballot by local government.

Referenda voting

Voters deciding whether to approve an issue or proposal put on the ballot by a local government.

Local referendum availability

Referenda are available in about 70 percent of American cities, making them more common than initiatives or recalls.

Binding referendum

A referendum whose outcome legally determines the final decision on the proposal.

Nonbinding referendum

A referendum used to measure public opinion without legally forcing government action.

Petition or protest referendum

A referendum process used to delay or challenge a government action through citizen petition.

Bond referendum

A vote on whether the government may borrow money for public projects, often requiring voters to weigh benefits against tax costs.

Property-tax referendum

A vote on proposals that would increase property taxes, often opposed by homeowners because they pay directly.

Homeowner voting behavior

Homeowners are more likely than renters to oppose property-tax-financed public expenditures.

Nonhomeowner voting behavior

Renters and non-property owners may be more likely to support bond and spending referenda because the tax cost is less visible to them.

Public-regardingness

The tendency of upper-class liberal voters to support recreational, cultural, and environmental public projects.

Campaign contributors

Individuals, businesses, or groups that give money to political candidates, often seeking access, goodwill, or influence.

Money in local politics

Campaign money matters increasingly in local politics, especially in large cities where mayoral and council races can be expensive.

Shoe leather campaign

A low-budget, door-to-door campaign still possible in small towns and suburbs.

Self-financed candidates

Wealthy candidates who use their own money to run for office and do not depend heavily on party support.

Nationalization of local politics

The trend of national issues, out-of-state donors, and SuperPACs entering local races when broader issues become part of local contests.

Traditional local campaign donors

Business interests with direct contact with local government, such as developers, builders, contractors, lawyers, accountants, advertisers, and nonprofit service providers.

Business-friendly local officials

Candidates favored by some business donors because they support regulatory relief and economic development.

Growth management

Local government efforts to limit or restrict population growth and commercial or industrial development.

Incumbent

The person currently serving in a public office.

Incumbent fundraising advantage

Incumbents usually raise and spend more money than challengers and usually win reelection.

Campaign contribution influence question

The concern that donations to winning candidates may buy access, influence, or favorable votes on issues important to contributors.

Ethics commission

A body that investigates complaints about ethical violations involving officials, campaign contributors, lobbyists, or gifts.

Elections commission

A body that enforces election and campaign rules, including some campaign finance complaints.

Smell test

The informal idea that even legal behavior may be seen as unethical if it appears suspicious or improper to the public.

Parties in big-city politics

Political parties matter less locally than nationally, but party influence is still visible in big-city politics.

Democratic dominance in big cities

Democrats have traditionally dominated large central cities because Democratic-leaning groups are concentrated there.

New Deal Democratic coalition

The modern Democratic coalition formed under Franklin D. Roosevelt that helped make many big cities Democratic strongholds.

Urban Democratic groups

Groups often aligned with Democrats in cities, including white ethnic groups, Catholics, Jews, African Americans, Latinos except many Miami Cubans, union members, and low-income families.

Suburban Republican tendency

Suburbs surrounding large Democratic cities have often been governed by Republicans.

Urban party identification

African Americans are the most solidly Democratic urban group, while Hispanics and Asians often vote Democratic but are more likely to identify as independents.

Immigrant political conservatism

Many immigrants are more conservative than native-born residents, with Asians noted as an exception in the text.

Noncitizen population effect

Many Hispanic and Asian immigrants cannot vote because they are not yet citizens, limiting registration and turnout.

Splits among urban Democrats

Conflicts within city Democratic coalitions, especially between working-class white ethnics and upper-class liberals, African Americans, and Latinos.

Working-class white ethnic Democrats

Urban Democratic faction often made up of Irish, Italian, Polish, and Catholic voters who may oppose higher taxes and spending on welfare, health, and housing.

Upper-class liberal Democrats

Urban Democratic faction often made up of white Protestants and Jews allied with black and Latino voters on issues like civil rights and public services.

Urban Democratic conflict issues

Issues such as affirmative action hiring, school busing, police behavior, prosecutors, public spending, welfare, health, and public housing.

Party machine slate balancing

The practice of traditional machines selecting candidates with attention to racial and ethnic balance to hold coalitions together.

African American-Hispanic coalition tension

Potential conflict between black and Hispanic groups over city jobs, language issues, and representation.

Republican big-city resurgence

Republican victories in heavily Democratic cities caused by frustration over deficits, crime, racial conflict, taxes, bureaucracy, and economic decline.

Republican urban campaign themes

Crackdowns on crime, smaller bureaucracy, lower deficits, tax relief, and economic stimulation.

Hispanic vote targeting

Republican strategy in some cities with black-Hispanic tensions, especially where Hispanic voters might be open to alternatives.

Machine

A tightly disciplined political organization historically centered in big cities that traded patronage jobs, contracts, services, and favors for votes.

Political machine

A political organization that uses personal and material rewards such as friendships, favors, and jobs to gain and maintain power.

Old-style machine politics

Big-city politics where tangible benefits mattered more than ideology or principle.

Machine brokerage role

The machine acted as a broker by trading services and favors to voters for votes and trading contracts or protection to businesses for money.

Machine social services

Help provided by machines to poor residents and immigrants, including jobs, food, assistance, favors, and personal attention.

Personal attention

A machine tactic that treated voters as individuals with specific needs, building loyalty through friendship and recognition.

Boss

The acknowledged leader of a political machine, whether or not the leader holds public office.

Patronage

Rewards granted by government officeholders to supporters, usually jobs, contracts, or favors.

Assimilation role of machines

Machines helped immigrants become part of American political life through naturalization, registration, jobs, and ethnic representation.

Machine upward mobility

Politics provided ethnic immigrants and working-class people a path to social and economic advancement.

Machine business role

Machines helped businesses obtain franchises, rights of way, contracts, protection, and privileges from city hall.

Getting things done

The machine’s ability to centralize power and efficiently deliver favors, services, contracts, or decisions at city hall.

Corruption

The use of public office for private gain, including bribery, conflicts of interest, misuse of power, and abuse of authority.

Municipal reform movement

Efforts to eliminate machines, patronage, and party influence while promoting professional management, nonpartisan elections, at-large districts, and merit systems.

Progressive movement

Reform movement that supported municipal reform, direct primaries, direct election of senators, women’s suffrage, and cleaner government.

Tammany Hall

New York City Democratic political organization associated with machine politics and boss rule.

William M. Tweed

Boss of Tammany Hall and symbol of corrupt machine politics in New York City.

Samuel J. Tilden

Reform leader who helped drive the Tweed Ring out of office and later ran for president in 1876.

Social base of reform

Municipal reformers were often upper-class, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant, educated, affluent, and public-service minded.

Machine social base

Machine politicians appealed to immigrants, ethnic groups, labor, blue-collar workers, and white working-class city residents.

Reform ethos

The belief that city government should serve a single public interest and be run by qualified experts rather than by political bargaining.