The Humanistic and Behaviourist Approach

What are the key assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach?

1. Behaviour is learned through experiences and interactions with the environment.

2. Stimulus-response mechanisms are the focus (what can be directly observed and measured).

3. Rejection of internal mental processes – the mind is a “black box” that cannot be studied scientifically.

4. Environmental determinism – behaviour is the result of experience and can be controlled by manipulating the environment.

What is classical conditioning?

A form of learning through association. An unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) naturally triggers a response (e.g., salivation), and a neutral stimulus (e.g., metronome) becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering the same response.

• Key example: Pavlov’s dogs salivating to the sound of a metronome.

What is operant conditioning?

A form of learning based on consequences. Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement or punishment.

Operant conditioning key methods

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., reward for good behaviour).

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., escape from pain).

• Punishment: Adding or removing stimuli to decrease a behaviour.

What is the Skinner Box?

A controlled environment used by B.F. Skinner to study operant conditioning. Animals (e.g., rats, pigeons) learn to operate levers to receive food (positive reinforcement) or avoid discomfort (negative reinforcement).

What are the types of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

1.Positive reinforcement – Giving a reward for a behaviour (e.g., food for pressing a lever).

2. Negative reinforcement – Removing an unpleasant stimulus when the behaviour occurs (e.g., stopping an electric shock when a lever is pressed).

3. Punishment – Adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one to reduce a behaviour (e.g., adding an electric shock for undesirable actions).

What is behaviour shaping in operant conditioning?

The process of reinforcing successive approximations of a target behaviour. Simple behaviours are rewarded first, then behaviours that are closer to the target behaviour are reinforced.

What is behaviour shaping in operant conditioning?

The process of reinforcing successive approximations of a target behaviour. Simple behaviours are rewarded first, then behaviours that are closer to the target behaviour are reinforced.

What is a strength of the behaviourist approach?

Scientific: Uses objective, measurable methods in highly controlled experiments.

• Real-world applications: Effective in therapies, like systematic desensitisation, token economies, and classroom management.

What is a weakness of the behaviourist approach?

Reductionist: Oversimplifies human behaviour by focusing only on environmental factors and ignoring cognitive, social, and biological influences.

• Animal research: Findings from animal studies may not always generalise to humans, as humans are more complex.

What are the key assumptions of the Humanistic Approach?

1. Free will: Humans have the ability to make conscious choices and control their behaviour.

2. Holistic approach: Human behaviour should be studied in the context of the whole person, considering all factors.

3. Self-actualisation: The process of achieving one’s full potential and becoming the best version of oneself.

4. Rejection of scientific methods: Human behaviour is too complex to be studied through simple cause-and-effect methods.

What is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A pyramid of human needs, where lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs can be pursued:

1. Physiological needs (food, water, shelter)

2. Safety needs (security, health)

3. Love and belonging (relationships, friendship)

4. Esteem needs (respect, self-esteem)

5. Self-actualisation (personal growth, achieving potential)

What is self-actualisation?

The process of realising one’s full potential and becoming the best version of oneself. It’s the highest level in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

What is congruence according to Carl Rogers?

Congruence refers to the alignment between a person’s ideal self and their perceived self. When there is a significant gap between these two selves, a person experiences incongruence, which can hinder self-actualisation.

How can someone become congruent?

• Adopt a more realistic ideal self: Adjusting expectations and avoiding conditions of worth that lead to unrealistic self-standards.

• Enhance self-concept: Receiving unconditional positive regard from others to develop a positive and realistic self-image.

What is client-centred therapy (person-centred therapy)?

Developed by Carl Rogers, it focuses on helping clients achieve congruence between their perceived and ideal selves. The therapist provides a supportive, non-judgmental environment with unconditional positive regard, allowing clients to explore and resolve their issues.

What is a strength of the humanistic approach?

Holistic: Offers a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour, considering multiple factors (environment, biology, self-awareness) rather than focusing on just one aspect.

• Practical applications: The approach has led to effective therapies like client-centred therapy, improving personal growth and mental health.

What is a weakness of the humanistic approach?

Non-scientific: The reliance on non-experimental, qualitative methods makes it difficult to test and validate its theories scientifically.

• Vague concepts: Concepts like self-actualisation are hard to define and measure, leading to criticisms of the approach’s lack of operationalisation.

How does the humanistic approach view free will?

The humanistic approach rejects deterministic explanations and emphasises that humans have free will to make choices and shape their lives. This contrasts with other approaches (like behaviourism) that focus on environmental determinism.

What is stimulus-response theory?

The theory that behaviour is the result of a direct relationship between a stimulus (an event in the environment) and a response (the behaviour that follows). Behaviourists argue that only observable behaviours should be studied, and internal mental processes are irrelevant.

What is environmental determinism in Behaviourism?

The belief that behaviour is determined by environmental factors, and that humans and animals respond to stimuli in predictable ways. Behaviourists believe that by manipulating the environment, behaviours can be predicted and controlled.

What is the role of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. It can be:

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., giving a treat for completing a task).

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping an electric shock when a lever is pressed).

How does punishment work in operant conditioning?

Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. It can be:

• Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., electric shock for pressing a lever).

• Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for misbehaving).

What is extinction in operant conditioning?

Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behaviour stops occurring because reinforcement is no longer provided. For example, if a rat in a Skinner box no longer receives food for pressing a lever, the behaviour will eventually stop.

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

• Primary reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing, such as food or water.

• Secondary reinforcers: Stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers, such as money or praise.

What is a strength of operant conditioning?

Practical applications: Operant conditioning is widely used in therapy, schools, and workplaces to reinforce positive behaviours (e.g., token economies in prisons, classroom management strategies).

What is a limitation of classical conditioning?

Simplistic: Classical conditioning focuses on automatic, involuntary responses, which may not account for more complex human behaviours, such as decision-making or emotions.

What is the criticism of the behaviourist approach regarding determinism?

Behaviourism is criticized for being deterministic, as it argues that all behaviour is shaped by the environment and experiences, disregarding the role of free will or conscious decision-making.

What is a practical application of classical conditioning?

Systematic desensitisation: A therapy technique that uses classical conditioning to reduce phobias by gradually associating a feared object with relaxation rather than anxiety.

What is a practical application of operant conditioning?

Token economies: Used in prisons, psychiatric hospitals, and schools, where individuals earn tokens for desired behaviours, which can later be exchanged for rewards.

What is unconditional positive regard?

A concept from Carl Rogers where the therapist provides the client with acceptance and support without any conditions, allowing the individual to explore their feelings and reduce incongruence between their ideal and perceived selves.

What is congruence in the context of Carl Rogers’ theory?

Congruence occurs when there is alignment between a person’s ideal self (the person they aspire to be) and their perceived self (how they see themselves). Greater congruence leads to better mental health and self-actualisation.

What is the difference between the ideal self and the perceived self?

Ideal self: The person you aspire to be, influenced by goals and aspirations.

• Perceived self: How you actually see yourself, influenced by experiences and feedback from others.

What are conditions of worth?

Conditions of worth are expectations placed on an individual by others, leading them to believe they must meet these conditions to gain love or approval. This can distort their self-concept and hinder personal growth.

What are the key features of Carl Rogers’ client-centred therapy?

Unconditional positive regard: Providing a non-judgmental environment.

• Empathy: Understanding the client’s feelings from their perspective.

• Genuineness: The therapist being authentic and open.

What is the holistic view of human behaviour in the Humanistic Approach?

Humanistic psychologists view behaviour as a result of the interaction between multiple factors—biological, social, environmental, and psychological—rather than attributing it to one specific cause.

What is a criticism of the Humanistic Approach?

Non-scientific: It is difficult to test or measure key concepts like self-actualisation and congruence, as they are not operationalised or defined in measurable terms.

What is a strength of the Humanistic Approach?

Practical applications: The approach has led to effective therapies like client-centred therapy, which focus on personal growth and mental well-being rather than treating mental illness.

How does Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs relate to self-actualisation?

Maslow’s Hierarchy suggests that individuals must satisfy lower-level needs (e.g., physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem) before they can pursue self-actualisation, which represents personal growth and reaching one’s potential.

What is a limitation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

Cultural bias: Maslow’s theory is based on Western individualism, prioritising personal achievement (self-actualisation), which may not align with collectivist values that prioritise family and community well-being.

What is a strength of the Humanistic view of free will?

Face validity: It aligns with people’s subjective experience of autonomy and self-direction. It reflects our belief that we have control over our actions and can make conscious choices.

What is a criticism of the Humanistic view of free will?

Over-simplified: The idea of free will may be an illusion, as much of human behaviour is influenced by biological, environmental, and unconscious factors beyond individual control.

What is the importance of self-concept in the Humanistic Approach?

Self-concept refers to the way we view ourselves. A positive self-concept is essential for personal growth and achieving self-actualisation. Unconditional positive regard and reducing conditions of worth help develop a healthier self-concept.

How does the Humanistic Approach view mental illness?

Unlike other approaches that focus on the dysfunction of the mind, the Humanistic Approach sees mental illness as a result of incongruence (the gap between perceived and ideal selves) and focuses on personal growth and self-actualisation to resolve issues.

What is a strength of the Behaviourist Approach in terms of research methodology?

The Behaviourist Approach uses controlled, empirical research with measurable variables. Experiments like Pavlov’s and Skinner’s allowed for replication, improving the reliability and scientific credibility of psychology.

What is a weakness of the Behaviourist Approach in terms of generalisation?

Lack of generalisability: Research in animals (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs, Skinner’s rats) may not apply to human behaviour, as humans are more complex and influenced by social and cultural factors.

What is a strength of the Humanistic Approach regarding personal development?

Focus on personal growth: The Humanistic Approach encourages individuals to focus on self-actualisation and achieving their potential, contributing to mental well-being and personal development.

What is a weakness of the Humanistic Approach in terms of its practical applications?

Lack of empirical evidence: Due to its reliance on qualitative methods and vague concepts (e.g., self-actualisation), the Humanistic Approach is difficult to test scientifically, making its theories harder to validate.

What is a key difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning: Involves involuntary responses, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs salivating to a metronome).

• Operant conditioning: Involves voluntary behaviour, where consequences (reinforcement or punishment) influence the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated (e.g., Skinner’s rats pressing levers for food).