Semantic Memory

PSY 332

Executive Functioning (Cognitive Control)

Higher-order processes that manage other cognitive operations (planning, working memory, attention, problem-solving, inhibition); linked to the prefrontal cortex.

Prefrontal Cortex

Brain region responsible for goal-directed behavior, impulse control, and regulation of emotion.

Phineas Gage (1848)

Railroad worker who survived a prefrontal cortex injury; his personality changed drastically, showing the PFC’s role in self-control and decision-making.

Development of the Prefrontal Cortex

Neural connections mature into the early 20s; adolescents rely more on emotional/limbic systems (Luna et al., 2001).

Miyake & Friedman’s Executive Functions (1999)

Framework identifying three core EFs—updating, inhibition, and shifting—that are related but distinct.

Updating

Monitoring and revising working memory contents (e.g., remembering what’s added while cooking).

Inhibition

Suppressing impulsive or dominant responses to reach a goal (e.g., resisting distractions).

Shifting

Cognitive flexibility to switch between tasks, rules, or mental sets (e.g., switching from essay to math).

Free Will vs. Volition (Libet et al., 1983)

EEG study showing brain activity occurs ~300 ms before conscious intent, suggesting unconscious processes initiate actions.

Readiness Potential

Early brain activity preceding a voluntary movement; evidence of unconscious initiation of actions.

Libet’s “Veto Power”

Conscious awareness may not start actions but can inhibit them before completion.

Self-Control Capacity (Baumeister et al., 1998)

Self-control operates like a muscle—drawing from a limited energy source that can become fatigued (ego depletion).

Ego Depletion

Temporary state of reduced self-control after sustained regulation efforts.

Dual-Task Paradigm

Method to test ego depletion by having participants complete two self-control tasks in succession.

Emotion Suppression Task

Inducing ego depletion by having participants suppress emotions (e.g., watching injury videos).

Ego Depletion Measurement

Measured by persistence on tasks (puzzles) or cold-pressor pain tolerance tests.

Criticism of Ego Depletion

Large replication studies and meta-analyses found weak or no effects (Sripada et al., 2014; Carter & McCullough, 2015).

Information Processing Approach to Memory

Sensory input → Sensory memory → Short-term/working memory → Long-term memory.

Encoding

Process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

Maintaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recollection of facts/events measured by recall or recognition.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious retention influencing thoughts or actions; measured via priming or relearning.

Procedural Memory

“Knowing how”; skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike). Implicit memory type.

Declarative Memory

“Knowing that”; facts, concepts, and events. Explicit memory type.

Automaticity

Transformation of declarative knowledge into procedural through practice (Anderson, 1983).

Semantic Memory

General world knowledge—facts, concepts, vocabulary, rules.

Episodic Memory

Autobiographical events with context (time/place); includes flashbulb memories.

Sentence Verification Task

Participants judge true/false sentences; reaction time and accuracy reveal semantic structure.

Semantic Network

Interconnected web of concepts and relationships forming knowledge structure.

Node

A concept or idea in a semantic network (e.g., “bird”).

Proposition

The relationship between two concepts (e.g., “A robin is a bird”).

Cognitive Economy

Non-redundant facts stored only once at higher levels (e.g., “can fly” under “bird”).

Inheritance

Category members inherit properties from higher-order categories.

Distance Effect

Reaction times increase as node distance in a semantic network increases.

Propositional Representation

Abstract, symbolic representation of meaning; not tied to sensory input.

Example of Propositional Representation

The word “cat” can be labeled as CAT, GATO, CHAT, 貓 — all point to the same abstract concept.

Analogical Representation

Representation mirroring real-world structure; mental imagery has a one-to-one mapping to external objects.

Propositional vs. Analogical Representation

Propositional = language-based and abstract; Analogical = perceptual and image-based.

Michel Foucault (1968), “The Treachery of Images”

Demonstrated that representations (e.g., a painting of a pipe) are not the same as the actual object—supports propositional theory.

Renee Magritte (1933), “The Human Condition”

Explores how perception and representation interact; relevant to analogical representation.

Semantic Relatedness

Degree of connection between concepts; closer concepts (e.g., doctor–nurse) retrieved faster than distant ones (doctor–truck).

George Lakoff (1990)

Showed semantic categories vary across cultures (“Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things”).

Typicality Effect

Typical category members are judged faster (“A robin is a bird”) than atypical ones (“A penguin is a bird”).

Typical but False Statement Example

“A whale is a fish” — high similarity but incorrect category.

Exemplar Model

Categories represented by stored individual examples; classification by similarity to known exemplars (Brooks, 1978; Medin & Schaffer, 1978).

Prototype Model

Categories represented by an abstract average of common features (Posner & Keele, 1968).

Prototype Example

“Typical depression symptoms” — mood, fatigue, loss of interest.

Spreading Activation

Activation of one node spreads to related nodes, facilitating recall of connected concepts.

Priming Effect

Faster recognition of related words due to spreading activation (e.g., “nurse” primes “doctor”).

Availability (Memory)

Whether a memory trace exists and was encoded into long-term memory.

Accessibility (Memory)

How easily a memory can be retrieved, depending on network structure and activation.

Freudian Slip

Unintentional speech errors revealing unconscious priming or thoughts.

Racial Priming

Subtle activation of stereotypes or associations through exposure to related cues.

Implicit Memory in Dissociative Fugue (Lyon, 1985)

“Jane Doe” lost explicit memory but retained implicit memory—dialed her mother’s number unconsciously.

Key Idea of Dissociative Fugue Study

Implicit memory can persist even when conscious identity or autobiographical memory is lost.