Mainstream Theories of IR

Realism (Core Assumptions)

• State-centric: states are the main actors.

• States are self-interested, security-seeking, and power-seeking.

• International system=anarchy (no higher authority).

• Leads to self-help, competition, and distrust.

• International politics is often tragic (Morgenthau; Carr)

• Case Applications: Cold War; great-power rivalry; arms races.

Realism (International Anarchy)

• Hobbes: “state of nature” = war of all against all.

• Domestic policies → hierarchy; international politics → anarchy

• Waltz (neorealism): anarchy structures state behavior; survival first.

• Leads to balance of power dynamics.

• Case: bipolar stability during Cold War (US v. USSR)

Security Dilemma

• Defensive measures appear races and conflict.

• Causes unintended arms races and conflicts.

• Jervis: uncertainty/misperception increases danger.

• Case: US-Soviet missile build-up; India-Pakistan nuclear rivalry.

Classical Realism

• Proposed by Morgenthau & Carr

• Conflict rooted in human nature → power-seeking is universal

• Carr: critiques idealism’s belief in harmony of interests.

• Policymakers must face reality to avoid unnecessary wars.

• Context: written after WWI & WWII

Neorealism Critiques

1. Failed to predict Cold War end → very limited view of change

2. Overly narrow focus on states & great powers

3. Circular logic: does anarchy cause egoism, or does egoism cause anarchy?

4. Ethical critique: claims universality from a Western male perspective

Liberalism - Philosphical Roots

• Humans capable of reason → progress possible.

• Locke: cooperation is natural in a rational society.

• Kant: enlightenment = using reason; potential for peace through norms and institutions.

• Optimistic about cooperation and reducing anarchy

Liberalism - Core IR Tenants'

• Cooperation possible under anarchy

• International institutions reduce uncertainty & provide shared rules

• Domestic politics (regime type, actors) matter

• States not just security-seeking; also pursue welfare and prosperity.

• Case: EU; UN peacekeeping; WTO dispute resolutions

Democratic Peace Theory

• Presented by Doyle

• Democracies rarely go to war with each other.

• Mechanisms: shared norms, institutional checks, and transparency.

• Challenges realist view of universal distrust.

• Case: Post-WWII Western Europe integration.

Interdependence & Institutions

• Presented by Keohane & Nye; Krasner

• Economic interdependence creates mutual benefits → incentives for stability.

• International institutions manage cooperation, reduce uncertainty.

• Krasner: “regimes” are sets of norms, rules and decision-making procedures.

• Case: EU Single Market; global supply chains; WTO

Regional Integration & Transnational Linkages

• Proposed by Mitrany, Haas, Deutsch

• Functional cooperation in one area spills over into others

• Linkages transform state preferences and identities over time

• Explains growth of supranational institutions

• Case: European integration (from ECSC → EU)

Power

• Propose by Nye

• Hard power: military force, wealth, coercion.

• Soft power: attraction (culture, values, diplomacy)

• Realism: soft power is marginal

• Liberalism: soft power essential for long-term influence

• Case: US cultural diplomacy; China’s Confucius Institutes (contested)

Relative v. Absolute Gains

• Realists: focus on relative gains (“Who benefits more?”)

• Liberals: focus on absolute gains (“Are we all better off?”)

• Explains why realists expect conflict even in cooperation

• Case: US-China tech rivalry (relative gains logic)

Constructivism - Core Tenents

1. International relations are socially constructed.

2. States are key actors but their identities aren’t fixed.

3. Key Structures are intersubjective (ideas, norms), not material.

4. Interests derive from identities shaped by social interaction.

Famous quote (Wendt): “Anarchy is what states make of it.”

Constructivism - Material v. Ideational Structures

• Material realities (weapons, capabilities) matter only through social meaning.

  • Ex. 500 British nukes v. 5 North Korean nukes → risk depends on perceived identity, not quantity.

• Shows that threats are socially defined.

• Case: US-UK alliance v. US-North Korea hostility.

Constructivism - Types of Reflexivity

1. Analyzing how actors construct the world (identities, nowms).

2. Recognizing how scholars themselves shape knowledge and narratives.

Critique: Mainstream IR takes a realist assumptions as “natural” instead of socially produced.

Constructivism v. Realism & Liberalism

• Realism: interests = survival + power; fixed

• Liberalism: interests shaped by domestic politics + institutions

• Constructivism: interests shaped by shared norms, identities, practices

• Most dynamic theory - explains change and norm evolution

• Case: Spread of human rights norms; anti-nuclear norm; end of apartheid.

Constructivist Case Studies

• End of the Cold War → shift in identities (Gorbachev: “new thinking”).

• EU → regional identity-building

• Human rights norms → responsibility to protect.

• Anti-landmine movement → Ottawa Treaty (NGO-driven).