week 5 mid and south america

What are some of the exclusions of “Latin America” as a common terminology used for this world region?

Some exclusions of “Latin America” include non-Romance-language-speaking countries like Belize, Guyana, Suriname, and some Caribbean nations, even though they are geographically in the region.

Identify tectonic plates and the tectonic activity of Mesoamerica and South America's Western Spine. What factors contribute to Mexico City's earthquakes? How does the mountain range contrast with high peaks in the world? Why are they called “water towers”?

• Mesoamerica and South America's western spine lie along the Cocos, Nazca, and South American plates, with tectonic activity driven by subduction zones causing frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

• Mexico City experiences earthquakes due to the subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the North American Plate and its soft lakebed foundation that amplifies seismic waves.

• The Andes Mountains, while very high, are not as tall as the Himalayas, and differ in tectonic origin and elevation extremes.

• They are called “water towers” because they store and release freshwater from snow and glaciers, supplying rivers and communities downstream.

What is the "ring of fire" and which Latin American mountain ranges are part of it?

The "Ring of Fire" is a seismically active zone around the Pacific Ocean with frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and in Latin America, it includes the Andes and the Sierra Madre mountain ranges.

Describe the tectonic activity of the Caribbean and the factors that made Haiti’s 2010 earthquake so deadly.

The Caribbean experiences complex tectonic activity due to the interaction of the Caribbean Plate with the North American and South American Plates, and Haiti’s 2010 earthquake was so deadly because of its shallow depth, proximity to a densely populated area, and poor infrastructure.

What was the estimated indigenous population in the Americas prior to European invasion? Recognize the geographical locations of the Maya, Inca, and Aztec civilizations.

The estimated indigenous population in the Americas before European invasion ranged from 50 to 100 million; the Maya lived in present-day southeastern Mexico and Central America, the Aztec in central Mexico, and the Inca along the Andes in present-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile.

Describe the agricultural crops and innovations of Mesoamerican and Andean early civilizations and their significance.

Mesoamerican civilizations cultivated maize, beans, squash, and cacao, using chinampas (floating gardens), while Andean civilizations grew potatoes, quinoa, and maize, using terracing and irrigation—all crucial for sustaining large populations and complex societies.

Describe the Columbian Exchange and its historical significance.

The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and goods between the Americas and the Old World after 1492, drastically reshaping global diets, economies, populations, and ecosystems.

What is meant by “virgin soil epidemics”? What was the death toll in the Americas? Describe the pristine myth and evidence that supports it.

“Virgin soil epidemics” refer to outbreaks of diseases in populations with no prior exposure or immunity, which caused the death of up to 90% of Indigenous peoples in the Americas; the “pristine myth” falsely portrayed the Americas as sparsely populated and untouched, but evidence like extensive agriculture, cities, and managed landscapes disproves this.

What Mesoamerican civilization collapsed prior to European invasion? Why?

The Maya civilization experienced a major collapse before European invasion due to a combination of factors including prolonged drought, warfare, political instability, and environmental degradation.

What is the approximate Indigenous population Middle and South America today? Which countries have the highest Indigenous populations? Recognize population clusters on a map.

Today, the Indigenous population of Middle and South America is estimated at around 45 million, with the highest populations in Mexico, Guatemala, Bolivia, and Peru; these populations are primarily clustered in southern Mexico, the Andes, and Central America.

What are the most spoken Indigenous languages in Latin America? Where are they mostly spoken?

The most spoken Indigenous languages in Latin America are Quechua, Nahuatl, and Maya; Quechua is primarily spoken in the Andes (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador), Nahuatl in central Mexico, and various Maya languages in southern Mexico and Central America.

How many enslaved people were part of the Trans-Atlantic trade? Identify where they came from and where they went to.

Approximately 12.5 million enslaved Africans were forcibly transported during the Trans-Atlantic trade, primarily from West and Central Africa, and were taken to the Americas, including regions in Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America.

What are quilombos, pelenques, and maroons? 

Quilombos, pelenques, and maroons refer to communities of escaped enslaved people in the Americas; quilombos were found in Brazil, pelenques in Colombia, and maroons were runaway groups in various parts of the Caribbean and Latin America, all seeking refuge and autonomy from colonial powers.

What motivated the Haitian Revolution? What is its significance for Haiti and the world? Why has a former Haitian president asked for almost $22 billion dollars from France?

The Haitian Revolution was motivated by the brutal slavery system and the desire for freedom and equality, leading to Haiti's independence in 1804, which was significant as the first successful slave revolt and the establishment of the first independent Black republic; a former Haitian president asked France for nearly $22 billion to compensate for the debt imposed on Haiti after its independence, which forced it to pay reparations to France for the loss of enslaved property.

Describe the geographical regions with the largest populations of Afro-descendants. Give examples of how this heritage shapes culture in the region.

The largest populations of Afro-descendants are in Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic; their heritage shapes regional culture through music genres like samba and salsa, religious practices such as Candomblé and Santería, and vibrant culinary traditions blending African, Indigenous, and European influences.

Explain the contrasting political agendas of racial whitening and mestizaje. What have been the outcomes of each of these political projects? Give examples.

Racial whitening (promoted in Brazil and Argentina) sought to assimilate and integrate Indigenous and Afro-descendant populations into a predominantly European culture, often marginalizing them, while mestizaje (promoted in Mexico and much of Central America) emphasized the blending of races to create a unified national identity; racial whitening led to the erasure of Afro-Indigenous cultures, while mestizaje often idealized mixed-race identities but still perpetuated inequalities for Indigenous and Afro-descendant communities, as seen in ongoing social and economic disparities.

Why is it a common discourse in Brazil to call itself a racial democracy? And why is that a myth?

Brazil often calls itself a racial democracy to promote the idea of harmonious racial integration and equality, but this is a myth because systemic racism, significant racial inequality, and the marginalization of Afro-Brazilians in areas like education, employment, and political representation persist.

How does Middle and South America compare with the rest of the world in its urban character? Identify the region's top megacities.

Middle and South America has a high rate of urbanization, with many countries experiencing rapid growth in cities, often leading to informal settlements and overcrowding; the region's top megacities include São Paulo, Mexico City, Buenos Aires, and Rio de Janeiro.

Describe the significance of Tenochtitlan and its transformations. What are some of the environmental issues of Mexico City? How do they relate to geography and history?

Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, was a marvel of engineering with canals, causeways, and floating gardens, but it was transformed into Mexico City after Spanish conquest; environmental issues in Mexico City include air pollution, water scarcity, and sinking, all linked to its location on a former lakebed, rapid urbanization, and overextraction of resources.

What are slums? Where are the largest slum populations? What forces explain slum formation in the region?

Densely populated, informal urban areas with poor living conditions and limited services.
São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City, and Caracas.
Rapid urbanization, poverty, lack of affordable housing, and rural-to-urban migration.

What is a smart city? Give examples from Colombia and Chile.

A city that uses digital technology to improve infrastructure, services, and quality of life.
Medellín in Colombia and Santiago in Chile.

Describe key characteristics of tropical rainforests (in terms of climate, evapotranspiration, soils, vertical structure, biodiversity, and endemic species).

Hot and humid climate with high rainfall year-round, high evapotranspiration, nutrient-poor and acidic soils, multi-layered vertical structure, rich biodiversity, and a high number of endemic species.

How does differences in topography shape diversity in the rainforest ecosystems? Describe cloud rainforests and floodplain rainforests.

Topography creates varied microhabitats, leading to diverse ecosystems through altitude and slope changes.
Cloud rainforests are found at higher elevations with cooler, misty conditions, while floodplain rainforests are located along rivers, characterized by seasonal flooding and rich soil.

What is a biodiversity hostpot?

a region with a high level of species diversity that is also under threat from human activities.

What is grassification? Describe the Hamburger Connection and compare past versus current linkages of supply and demand of meat and tropical deforestation in Mesoamerica.

The conversion of tropical forests into pastureland for livestock.
The Hamburger Connection links the global demand for beef to deforestation in the Amazon and Mesoamerica, with past linkages driven by industrial-scale cattle ranching, and current linkages now include soybean production for livestock feed and expanding agricultural frontiers.

What is narco deforestation? Where is it prevalent? Which country is the top consumer of cocaine?

Deforestation caused by illegal drug cultivation, particularly coca plants for cocaine production.
Prevalent in countries like Colombia, Mexico, and Peru.
The United States is the top consumer of cocaine.

What are the major causes of deforestation in the Amazon? How do international connections shape both the protection and destruction? How much of the forest is protected? How much is gone?

Major causes include agricultural expansion, cattle ranching, logging, and infrastructure development.
International connections shape protection through conservation efforts and destruction through global demand for beef, soy, and timber.
About 25% of the Amazon is protected, with roughly 17% of the forest lost.

What is the Belt Road Initiative? What is its impact in the Amazon?

The Belt and Road Initiative is a global infrastructure and trade project led by China to enhance connectivity and economic cooperation.
Its impact in the Amazon includes increased deforestation due to infrastructure development, like roads and ports, to facilitate trade.

What are uncontacted tribes? Where are they located in the world? 

Uncontacted tribes are Indigenous groups that have little to no contact with the outside world.
They are primarily located in the Amazon rainforest, parts of Papua New Guinea, and remote regions of India and the Andaman Islands.

Explain the movement for coding the rights of nature into law and how that intersects with Indigenous movements.

The movement for coding the rights of nature into law advocates for recognizing ecosystems and natural entities as legal subjects with rights, intersecting with Indigenous movements by aligning with traditional Indigenous beliefs that view nature as sacred and deserving of protection.