1. Theories of religion

What is the substantive definition of religion?

• Focus on the belief in a supernatural figure, sacred texts and reference to holy places

• Weber says religion is belief in a superior/supernatural figure which can’t be explained scientifically

Evaluate the substantive view of religion?

• It is an exclusive definition as it excludes religions without a supernatural figure such as Buddhism - draws a clear line between religious and non-religious but ignores beliefs or practices which perform similar functions to religion but don’t involve a God

• Widespread definition of religion

• Western-centric as it excludes Buddhism which doesn’t have a Western idea of God

What is the functional definition of religion?

• Focuses on the social or psychological functions religion performs for individuals

• Durkheim defines religion as how it contributes to social integration

• Yinger identifies functions religion may perform for individuals such as answering the “ultimate” questions about life

• Berger - Religion offers a 'sacred canopy' – a protective framework that shields believers from chaos by giving comforting answers to life’s big uncertainties

Evaluate the functional definition of religion?

• It is inclusive so it includes a wide range of beliefs and practices

• No Western bias as it doesn’t focus on the supernatural

• However, it may be too broad football supporters being called religious as they all collectively chant the same football song

What is the constructionist/polythetic definition of religion?

• Interpretivist definition of religion focusing on how individuals define religion

• They argue it isn’t possible for there to be one universal definition of religion

  • Aldridge argues definitions of religion reflect power struggles over who has the authority to decide what counts as a religion

  • Eg: Aldridge says scientology may be a religion to some individuals but not the government as they try to ban it

Evaluate the constructionist/polythetic definition of religion?

• Doesn’t assume religion always performs a specific function or must have a supernatural figure

• However, it makes it impossible to generalise about what a religion is using this definition as people or countries may have differing views.

What did the functionalist Durkheim say about religion and the sacred and profane?

• Purpose of religion is to distinguish between the sacred (things set apart which are surrounded by prohibitions but inspire feelings of awe and fear) and the profane (mundane things with no special significance)

• Religion usually contains sacred practices or collective rituals so unites believers creating social cohesion

• Sacred things in religion evoke such powerful feelings → therefore when people worship sacred symbols they are worshipping society because it is the only thing powerful enough to command those feelings

Evaluate the sacred and profane?

• However, Durkheim goes on to suggest people worship society which may not always be true as many people use religion to help manage in society due to eg: racism

• No sharp division between the sacred and profane - Worsley

What did the functionalist Durkheim say about religion and totemism?

• He studied Arunta (a tribe with a clan system in Australia)

• Where everyone comes together in rituals around a shared object called a totem. The totem symbolises the clan’s identity

• Reinforces social solidarity and sense of belonging

• The clan members are in fact worshiping society because the totem inspires feelings of awe as it represents the power of the group which the individual is dependent on

Evaluate totemism?

• Different societies share the same totem therefore the totem isn’t unique to that group

What did the functionalist Durkheim say about religion and the collective conscience?

• Religion maintains societies shared conscience (norms and values) and without this society would disintegrate

• Shared single moral community and regular rituals makes the individual feel they are part of something greater than themselves so owe their loyalty and themselves to society which motivates them to overcome challenges.

Evaluate the collective conscience?

• May only apply to small-scale communities because large scale communities may have more conflict as they have more religions

• Mestrovic argues increasing diversity means Durkheim’s ideas can’t be applied to contemporary society as there is no longer a single shared value system for religion to enforce

What did the functionalist Durkheim say about religion and the cognitive functions of religion?

• Source of our intellectual capabilities

• Says religion is the origin of the categories needed for reasoning, understanding and communicating so everyone has the same categories

• Religion provides basic categories such as space and time - Durkheim argues in the book Primitive Classification

• Eg: creation stories showing how the world began → meaning

Explain Malinowski’s idea?

Religion helps people cope with psychological stress that would undermine social solidarity

1. When the outcome is important but to get there is uncertain - uncontrollable events - Trobriand Islanders ocean and lagoon fishing - Lagoon fishing is safe whereas ocean fishing is hazardous so accompanied by “canoe magic” rituals which ease tension and reinforce social solidarity helping the fishers control the outcome of the trip

2. At times of crisis eg: birth, death cause disruption which religion helps to minimise helping people return to normality. Eg: funerals reinforce social solidarity among survivors → he argues death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief

Explain Parsons view on religion?

• Religion creates, legitimises and sacralises values eg: British values such as toleration and freedom of thought maintaining social consensus → however, some religions don’t allow freedom of thought and restrict freedoms

• Religion is the primary source of meaning allowing us to adjust to adverse events/circumstances and answering the “ultimate” questions which may otherwise test our commitment to the values of society. Eg: suffering is a test of faith which is rewarded in Heaven

What does Bellah talk about?

• Civil religion

• Unites multi-faith societies such as America through Americanism/American way of life

• Attaches sacred qualities to a society itself - belief in an American God and loyalty to the nation-state

• Can be expressed through rituals such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag - bringing people of different ethnic groups together

• Bellah says civil religion doesn’t always have to include a God eg: Nazi Germany. However, this can be seen as nationalism instead of religion and many people do not support the American way of life who live in America. Eg: Northern Ireland where religion used to divide the North and South instead of unite

Explain Marxist ideas of religion as an ideology?

• Marx said ideology is a beliefs system which distorts people’s perception of reality. He says religion is a way of the ruling class legitimising the poverty the working class face by saying they will be favoured in the afterlife. Eg: Christianity “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for someone who is rich to enter the kingdom of God”. Religion creates a false consciousness to prevent the poor from changing their situation.

• Lenin describes religion as a “spiritual gin” given to the working class to keep them in their place. Ruling class create a “mystical fog” to obscure reality.

• Divine Right of Kings where the King used to be God’s representative on Earth. This forced the working class to cooperate because going against the King wouldn’t just be illegal but also a sin making you go to Hell in the afterlife. Or the Hindu Caste system kept in place by the doctrine of karma.

What was said about religion and alienation?He

• Marx says religion is a product of alienation

• Due to capitalism the classes are more divided where the working class do not own their means or mode of production and are forced to repeat the same minute tasks in dehumanising conditions

• Religion is a form of consolation for the working class in the exploitation because “religion is the opium of the masses” as the afterlife creates hope because the working class believe they will be rewarded in Heaven. "the last shall be first, and the first last"

• He says this shows how religion arises out of alienation and acts as consolation for it. Also acting as an ideology legitimising the suffering of the poor and the privileges of the ruling class

Evaluate Marxist theories of religion

• Hindu Caste System was outlawed in 1950

• There are positive psychological functions of religion

• Neo-Marxists see religion as assisting class consciousness

• Religion pre-capitalism only had a small impact on the working class as it was mainly an element of ruling class ideology so religion doesn’t always control the population

Which feminist says about religious organisations and what did she say?

• Karen Armstrong said women’s exclusion from the priesthood is evidence of women’s marginalisation.

• Religious organisations are often more male-dominated eg: Orthodox Catholicism forbids women to become priests

Which feminist says about places of worship as evidence of patriarchy and what did she say?

• Places of worship often segregate the sexes and marginalising women forcing them to sit behind screens while men occupy more central spaces

• Women’s participation may be restricting eg: in Islam menstruating women aren’t allowed to touch the Qur’an or recite it out loud

• Holm says this is the devaluation of women in religion

→ However, there are exceptions: recite from memory, read digital versions, use a barrier (cloth, gloves) to touch the Qur’an

Explain and evaluate sacred texts as a feminist theory of religion?

• Sacred texts largely feature male Gods. They often reflect anti-female stereotypes eg: Eve who is the cause of humanity’s fall from grace

• However, Armstrong argues that early religions often placed women in the centre. Women were seen as Earth Mother goddesses throughout the Middle Ages until 6,000 years ago.

• The rise of monotheistic religions saw the rise of an all powerful male God.

Explain religious laws and customs marginalising women in religion?

• Religious laws and customs often give less rights to women in marriage and divorce

• Religious influences on cultural norms may lead to unequal treatment eg: genital mutilation

• Eg: Catholic Church banning abortion

• Woodhead said this is evidence of the Church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women generally

What does Nawal El Saadawi argue?

• While religion oppresses women it is not the direct cause of their subordination

• Patriarchal forms of society came into practice over the past few thousand years which reshaped religion and reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways which favoured patriarchy

• The rise of monotheism legitimised power of men over women

What does Woodhead argue?

• Some religions may be a form of feminism for some people however, most religion is patriarchal

• Feminism is Westernised as many Muslim women see the veil as a symbol of liberation rather than oppression.

• This is because the viel allows women to achieve parental approvement for further education and employment where their presence has been problematic (Gilliat-Ray)

• Allows women to enter the public sphere without being labelled as immodest

What did Brusco say about piety movements? Evaluate?

• Women can use religion to gain respect from family

• For example, in Colombia she found belonging to a Pentecostal group was empowering for women

• Despite the groups having set gender roles and norms the groups encouraged equality between the sexes and encouraged men to refrain from macho behaviour

• Enabled women to join prayer and study groups to gain support

→ However, these women were generally middle class women who may already have recourses such as money and education to achieve their goals (Rinaldo)

Explain how liberal protestant organisations are religious forms of feminism?

• Church of England has had female priests since 1992

• First ever female arch bishop of Canterbury in 2025: Sarah Mullally

• Unitarians are often committed to gender equality - 1/3 of their ministers are female