AP Psych Unit 1

Evolutionary Perspective

the study of behavior, thought, and feeling as viewed through the lens of evolutionary biology. presume all human behaviors reflect the influence of physical and psychological predispositions that helped human ancestors survive and reproduce.

Natural Selection

the principle that, among range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Eugenics

the practice or advocacy of improving the human species by selectively mating people with specific desirable hereditary traits. It aims to reduce human suffering by “breeding out” disease, disabilities and so-called undesirable characteristics from the human population.

Twin Studies

studies conducted on identical or fraternal twins. They aim to reveal the importance of environmental and genetic influences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders.

Central Nervous System

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms.

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Reflex Arc

works by sensing information and relaying it to effectors. By doing so, the body is able to respond without messages needing to be first processed by the brain in order to prevent injury quickly.

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

All-or-Nothing Principle

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.

Depolarization

when there's a shift in a neuron's electrical charge that allows an action potential (nerve impulse) to occur.

Refractory Period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

Resting Potential

is the electrical potential difference between the inside and outside of a neuron. The inside is more negative and the outside is more positive

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Multiple Sclerosis

a disease of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) characterized by inflammation and multifocal scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission.

Myasthenia Gravis

an autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction. It manifests as a generalized muscle weakness which can involve the respiratory muscles

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

cause it to “fire off the message,” meaning, the message continues to be passed along to the next cell.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

block or prevent the chemical message from being passed along any farther

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, undersupply equals depression

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal, but an undersupply can depress mood, excitatory neurotransmitter

Dopamine

influences movement learning, attention and emotion. Excess linked to schizophrenia. Decrease linked to Parkinson's

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory, and learning

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter, undersupply linked to epilepsy, and insomnia. Regulates anxiety

Substance p

one of the important complex mechanisms involved in pain perception. The sensory function is thought to be related to the transmission of pain information into the central nervous system.

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Adrenaline

a stress hormone known as epinephrine  released into the bloodstream, part of the "fight or flight" response. When facing a perceived stressor or threat, this hormone stimulates the nervous system to prepare the body for a quick response.

Leptin

Also known as the "starvation hormone", signals the hypothalamus that the body has enough fat stored to function normally. When leptin levels are high enough, appetite is inhibited. When leptin levels are low, it indicates that we need to consume more food and appetite increases.

Ghrelin

a hormone that is known as an appetite increaser. It is released in the stomach and stimulates the hypothalamus to increase appetite. If a person's bodily resources are low, or if they are not eating enough, this leads to an increase in levels.

Melatonin

a hormone known to regulate sleep and wake cycles. It is released by the pineal gland into the bloodstream when sleep is prompted.

Oxytocin

a hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland that plays a significant role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth.

Agonist Drugs

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist Drugs

Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

Psychoactive Drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

Stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Caffeine

an antagonist of the neuromodulator adenosine. It belongs to the methylxanthine group of alkaloids, and its effects include rapid breathing, increased pulse rate and blood pressure, and diminished fatigue. Precise effects vary with the amount ingested and the tolerance of the individual.

Cocaine

an illegal stimulant that speeds up the workings of the brain. The person using it feels euphoric because cocaine taps into the brain's chemical reward system. Long-term use can lead to depression, psychosis and heart problems.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol

a depressant, which can disrupt the balance of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in your brain and affect your feelings, thoughts and behavior. Affects the part of your brain that controls inhibition, so you may feel relaxed, less anxious, and more confident after a drink.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Marijuana

a mind-altering (psychoactive) drug, produced by the Cannabis sativa plant. THC (delta- 9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is believed to be the main ingredient that produces the psychoactive effect.

Opioids

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Heroin

an opioid drug made from morphine, a natural substance taken from the seed pod of the various opium poppy plants depresses neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety as well. Stops the production of endorphins. Endorphins are the body's natural painkiller and since it mimics endorphins, stopping the drug could mean death by overdose.

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Brain Stem

the oldest part and central core of the brain. AKA reticular formation, or reticular activating system. In charge of automatic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Activating System

is responsible for sensation, consciousness, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle. transmits the sensory messages to different areas of the cerebral cortex through the thalamus

Brain’s Reward Center

the mesolimbic pathway connects the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the accumbens (NAc). The VTA is significant because it contains neurons that release dopamine, or dopaminergic neurons.

Cerebellum

"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. The outer layer of your brain's surface, located on top of the cerebrum. Carries out essential functions of your brain, like memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness, and sensory functions.

Hemispheres (Left/Right)

The left controls movement for the right side of the body, while the right directs the left side. They specialize in distinct mental functions—different aspects of visual perception, but most behaviors and abilities require activity in both halves of the brain

Limbic System

A system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, aggression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus

Thalamus

the brain’s sensory switchboard' Located at top of brainstem; directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to cerebellum and medulla.

Hypothalamus

a structure deep in your brain, acts as your body's smart control coordinating center. Its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing your autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones.

Pituitary Gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Hippocampus

formation of memory and processes explicit memories for storage. All memories start there; you can think of it as some sort of "save 💾 button."

Amygdala

2 lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion. Includes rage and fear.

Corpus callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

frontal lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

temporal lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory info primarily from the opposite end.

occipital lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual field.

parietal lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. Receives sensory input for touch and body position

Somatosensory Cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Split Brain Research

(experiments on people with a severed corpus callosum) has confirmed that in most people, the left hemisphere is the more verbal, and that the right hemisphere excels in visual perception and the recognition of emotion.

Broca’s Area

responsible for speech production and language comprehension. Damage to this area can result in a specific type of aphasia. This is a condition in which you know what you want to say, but when you say it, it does not make sense.

Werenicke’s Area

located in the back of the temporal lobe near the occipital lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere and is involved in understanding written and spoken language

Split Brain Patient

an individual who has undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callosotomy, where the corpus callosum (the structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) is severed to some degree. This procedure is often done to reduce or eliminate severe epileptic seizures.

Aphasia

the impairment of language that occurs when either the (expressive aphasia ) or (receptive aphasia ) is damaged. Depending on which type of aphasia one has, one could be able to speak language but not understand it and vice versa.

Brain PlasticityBrain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) scan

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

(PET) Positron emission tomography scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function

Lesioning (Brain Surgical Procedure)

tissue destruction. It can occur naturally or experimentally by the caused destruction or removal of brain tissues

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Circadian Rhythm (Sleep/Wake Cycle)

the biological clock; regular body rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

State of Consciousness

The features of consciousness experienced by an individual at a particular point in time

Altered state of consciousness

A temporary state that differs significantly from a normal waking state; includes sleep, meditation, a coma, hypnosis, or the influence of drugs.

Conscious level

All of the things within one’s awareness at the present moment, including information about one’s self and current environment.

Nonconscious level

The body’s automatic biological processes, like breathing and heartbeat, which are controlled by the brain but are generally outside of one’s active awareness.

Disruptions to Circadian Rhythm (jet lag)

An out-of-sync sleep/wake cycle.

Jetlag: Temporary condition caused by rapid travel across time zones and may leave an individual experiencing fatigue, insomnia, nausea, or other symptoms as a result of the circadian rhythm disruption

Beta Waves

Awake, Normal Alert, Consciousness

Alpha Waves

light sleep

Physically and mentally relaxed, aware but drowsy

Theta Waves

Early Sleep / Reduced consciousness, deep meditation, light sleep

Delta Waves

Deep sleep (dreamless) sleep, loss of bodily awareness

Hypnagogic sensations

a transitional stage between wakefulness and sleep, in which sensory perceptions can be experienced

a transitional stage between wakefulness and sleep, in which sensory perceptions can be experienced

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also, known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active