ap euro unit 2

chapters 3 and 4

Christian humanism

a Northern Renaissance intellectual and cultural movement that combined classical scholarship with an emphasis on Christian piety and morality

Northern Renaissance

A cultural and artistic movement in Northern Europe characterized by the spread of Italian Renaissance ideas and the emphasis on Christian Humanism, a blend of classical learning and religious reform

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch Christian Humanist of the Northern Renaissance, famous for advocating for reform within the Catholic Church through education and a return to original Christian sources

Martin Luther

a German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517 by posting his 95 Theses. His core challenge was against the sale of indulgences and the Catholic Church's authority, advocating for salvation through faith alone (sola fide)

justification

the Protestant doctrine that salvation is achieved by God's grace through faith alone (sola fide)

Indulgences

certificates issued by the Catholic Church that offered a remission of temporal punishment for sins, or reduction of time in purgatory, typically in exchange for money or good deeds

Ninety-five theses

A list of propositions by Martin Luther in 1517, criticizing the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and challenging papal authority

Diet of worms

a 1521 imperial assembly of the Holy Roman Empire (held in the city of Worms) where Martin Luther was summoned to appear before Emperor Charles V to address his critiques of the Catholic Church

Peasants' War

a large-scale revolt in the Holy Roman Empire where peasants, fueled by economic hardship and religious ideas from the Reformation, rose up against landlords and feudal oppression

Transubstantiation

The Roman Catholic doctrine that during the Eucharist (Mass), the physical substance of the bread and wine miraculously changes into the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ

Katherina Von Bora

Married Martin Luther, breaking the Catholic Church's requirement for clerical celibacy and providing a model for the Protestant family and a renewed emphasis on the companionate marriage

Charles V

A powerful Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ruling over a vast, diverse empire and actively opposing the Protestant Reformation to maintain religious and political unity

Francis I

A key figure in promoting the French Renaissance through art patronage, notably inviting Leonardo da Vinci

Habsburg-Valois War

A series of 16th-century conflicts between the Habsburg dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain and the Valois dynasty of France. The wars were primarily a dynastic struggle for control over Italian territories and for dominance within Europe

Suleiman the Magnificent

The tenth and longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, who ruled from 1520 to 1566

Siege of Vienna

A military offensive by the Ottoman Empire that ultimately failed due to logistical challenges and strong Habsburg defense

Schmalkaldic League

a defensive military and political alliance of Lutheran princes and cities in the Holy Roman Empire formed in 1531 to protect their religious and political interests against the Catholic Emperor Charles V

Peace of Augsburg

a 1555 treaty that ended religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire by allowing German princes to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism as the official religion for their territories

Ulrich Zwingli

--a leading figure of the Swiss Reformation and a key reformer

--opposed the Catholic Mass and emphasized a symbolic rather than a literal understanding of the Eucharist

Anabaptists

Radical Protestants in the 16th century who believed that baptism should be performed only on adults (re-baptism), advocated for the separation of church and state, emphasized pacifism, and formed voluntary communities of faith distinct from society

John of Leiden

Anabaptist leader who, during the Protestant Reformation, led a radical theocratic government in the German city of Münster

Menno Simons

influential Dutch Anabaptist leader during the Protestant Reformation, whose peaceful theology distinguished his followers from more radical factions. His followers become known as Mennonites

English Reformation

The process in 16th-century England where the Church of England separated from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church, primarily driven by King Henry VIII's political desire for a divorce and control over the church

Henry VIII

A pivotal figure known for creating the Church of England by breaking from the Roman Catholic Church, a move primarily motivated by his desire for a divorce and a male heir

Catherine of Aragon

First wife of Henry VIII, whose inability to produce a male heir and Henry's desire to annul their marriage were the direct causes of the split between the English monarchy and the Catholic Church

Anne Boleyn

King Henry VIII's second wife, whose desire to marry her was a primary catalyst for England's break from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England.

Elizabeth

Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Tudor monarch who stabilized England's religious divisions with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement

Act of Supremacy

a pivotal English parliamentary act declaring King Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England, severing ties with the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope

Mary Tudor

the first queen regnant of England (1553-1558), known as "Bloody Mary" for her persecution of Protestants to restore Catholicism after the English Reformation

"Bloody Mary"

refers to Queen Mary I of England, whose reign (1553-1558) is significant for her determined efforts to forcibly restore Catholicism in England, a policy that led to the execution of many Protestants and earned her the notorious nickname

John Calvin

French theologian and key leader of the Protestant Reformation, known for his theology of predestination, emphasis on God's sovereignty, and disciplined Christian life

Predestination

Calvinist doctrine that God has eternally determined who will be saved (the elect) and who will be damned, regardless of their actions

John Knox

Key leader of the Scottish Reformation who championed Protestantism and helped establish Presbyterianism

Catholic Reformation

The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, involving reforms to address corruption and reaffirm Catholic doctrine

Saint Teresa of Avila

Spanish mystic and reformer of the Carmelite Order during the Catholic Reformation, known for founding the Discalced Carmelites, a strict branch emphasizing austerity and deep contemplative prayer

Ignatius of Loyola

Spanish nobleman and soldier who, after a spiritual conversion, founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in the 16th century.

Jesuits

Religious order that revitalized the Church through rigorous education, established global missionary work to spread Catholicism, and countered the spread of Protestantism, revitalizing the Catholic Church

Francis Xavier

a prominent Spanish Jesuit missionary during the 16th century who led the global expansion of Catholicism as part of the Counter-Reformation

Paul III

A pivotal pope during the Counter-Reformation who convened the Council of Trent, initiating internal Catholic reforms and doctrinal clarifications to counter Protestantism

Council of Trent

An ecumenical council of the Catholic Church that served as the centerpiece of the Counter-Reformation, a movement to reform the Church and address the challenges of the Protestant Reformation

French Wars of Religion

A series of civil conflicts in France between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) from 1562 to 1598, driven by religious fervor and political struggles for control over the French monarchy and nobility

Huguenots

French Calvinist Protestants in 16th and 17th century France who, due to severe persecution from the predominantly Catholic majority, engaged in a series of violent conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion

Bourbon

A French royal house that gained significance for their role in the ** Age of Absolutism**, consolidating power in France and Spain to become one of Europe's most influential dynasties

Catherine de Medici

Italian noblewoman and Queen of France who served as regent for her sons during the French Wars of Religion

Guise

A powerful French noble family who were leaders of the Catholic League and staunchly opposed the Huguenots (French Protestants) during the French Wars of Religion

Politiques

European rulers and thinkers who prioritized political unity, stability, and the welfare of the state over religious uniformity

Henry of Navarre

Significant for ending the French Wars of Religion by issuing the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted religious freedoms to Huguenots (French Protestants) and established relative stability in a predominantly Catholic France

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

A targeted series of killings of French Huguenots (Protestants) by Catholic mobs in 1572, starting on August 24th, which resulted in thousands of deaths and intensified the French Wars of Religion

War of the Three Henrys

the final phase of the French Wars of Religion, a conflict fought in the late 16th century between France's King Henry III, the ultra-Catholic Henry, Duke of Guise, and the Protestant Henry of Navarre

Edict of Nantes

A 1598 French royal decree by King Henry IV granting substantial religious rights to Calvinist Protestants (Huguenots) and ending the French Wars of Religion

Philip II

King of Spain who significantly increased the power of the Spanish Empire, ruling vast territories across the known world. As a devout Catholic, he championed the Counter-Reformation, launching the Spanish Armada against England and combating the Ottoman Empire to defend Catholicism

The Escorial

a massive palace, monastery, church, and mausoleum complex built by King Philip II of Spain, located outside of Madrid. Its design reflected Philip II's devout Catholicism and the ideology of the Spanish Counter-Reformation

Revolt of the Netherlands

A conflict in which the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands fought for political and religious independence from the Spanish Crown

United Provinces

A confederation of seven northern provinces that gained independence from Spain in the late 16th century

Puritans

English Protestants who sought to reform the Church of England by eliminating Catholic practices, ultimately leading to religious and political tension and a migration to America to establish their own religious communities

Mary, Queen of Scots

Catholic claimant to the English throne who challenged the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I, highlighting the religious divisions and political struggles of the era

Francis Drake

English privateer, explorer, and naval commander who served during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. He was involved in privateering, the slave trade, and made the second-ever circumnavigation of the globe

Spanish Armada

A vast Spanish fleet sent by King Philip II in 1588 to invade England, overthrow Queen Elizabeth I, and restore Catholicism

Lateen Sails

Triangular sail that was a key innovation in maritime technology, allowing ships to sail effectively against the wind

Compass

Navigational instrument that was crucial during the Age of Exploration, allowing European sailors to determine direction more accurately and sail further from shore than ever before

Astrolabe

A key navigational instrument during the Age of Exploration that helped sailors determine latitude

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who sponsored expeditions that initiated the Age of Discovery by exploring the coast of Africa and developing new navigational technologies, leading to advancements in seafaring, navigation, and ship design

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese explorer who, in 1498, became the first European to sail directly to India by rounding Africa's Cape of Good Hope

Malacca

The key trading port in Southeast Asia that the Portuguese captured in 1511

Christopher Columbus

The Italian mariner, funded by Spain in 1492, whose voyages across the Atlantic in search of a westward route to Asia resulted in European contact with the Americas. This initiated the Columbian Exchange

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal, brokered by Pope Alexander VI, to settle conflicts over newly discovered lands

Conquistadors

A Spanish soldier and explorer who conquered parts of the Americas in the 16th century for wealth, land, and the spread of Christianity

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire between 1519 and 1521, bringing large parts of modern-day Mexico under Spanish rule

Aztecs

A powerful Mesoamerican civilization that was conquered by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés between 1519 and 1521

Inca

A vast, highly organized, pre-Columbian civilization in South America that existed from the early 15th century until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, establishing Spanish colonial rule and claiming the territory for the Spanish crown

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system in the Americas where colonists were granted the right to demand goods or labor from specific groups of Indigenous peoples in exchange for protection and religious instruction, though it often devolved into a system of forced labor and servitude resembling slavery

Bartolome de las Casas

Spanish Dominican priest and former colonist who became a fierce advocate for Indigenous rights in the Americas, witnessing and documenting the brutal exploitation and violence by Spanish

Smallpox

The highly contagious and deadly viral disease that emerged from the Old World and spread to the New World via the Columbian Exchange

Triangular trade

The three-sided transatlantic exchange network connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the 15th to the early 19th centuries

Middle Passage

Refers to the harrowing, transatlantic stage of the Triangular Trade where enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from the African coast to the Americas as chattel, enduring horrific conditions such as overcrowding, chains, and brutal treatment

Mughal Empire

a powerful, wealthy trade partner and competitor in the Indian Ocean, whose valuable commodities and controlled trade routes drove European exploration and the growth of powerful joint-stock companies

Plantations

Large agricultural estates, typically established by European colonizers in the Americas and the Caribbean, dedicated to cultivating high-demand cash crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton

Saint-Domingue

A French colony on the western part of the island of Hispaniola (modern-day Haiti) that, due to its rich sugar and coffee plantations, became the wealthiest colony in the world and heavily relied on enslaved African labor

Price Revolution

The period of significant inflation in Europe, primarily during the 16th and early 17th centuries, driven by an increased money supply from the influx of precious metals (gold and silver) from the Americas, coupled with growing population and increased demand for goods

Bank of Amsterdam

A revolutionary financial institution that provided a stable currency, secure deposit accounts, and bills of exchange

Mercantilism

An economic theory and system where a nation's power and wealth are built by accumulating precious metals through a favorable balance of trade—exporting more than importing