psychological development

Developmental Psychology

organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences

Nature-Nurture issue

debate over whether our traits and behaviors are shaped more by biology (nature) or by environment and experience (nurture)

Twin studies

twins are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects

Developmental stages

phases people go through as they grow physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally

Sensorimotor

(0–2) → learning through senses + object permanence

Preoperational

(2–7) → pretend play, egocentrism

Concrete Operational

(7–11) → logical thinking about concrete events

Formal Operational

(12+) → abstract thinking

Continuity

slow and steady growth, a child grows a little taller each year — no sudden jumps

Discontinuity

development happens in clear, separate stages, where you suddenly gain new abilities all at once

Germinal period

first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining

Embryonic period

the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop

Fetal period

time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth (development of fetus)

Placenta

An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother

Critical periods (pregnancy)

times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant

Teratogen

any factor that can cause a birth defect

Fetal Alcohol Syndrom

leading cause of mental retardation

Sensory Abilities

all senses are functioning, vision is limited for first 4-6 weeks

Rooting Reflex

turning the face

toward a stimulus

Babinski Reflex

rub the bottom of the foot and the toes fan out and curl back in

Moro Reflex (startle reflex)

pulling arms and legs into the body then extending them out

Maturation

sets the course of development, experience adjusts it, largely unfolds on it’s own

Cognitive Development

the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas

One of Piaget’s Important Concepts

Children are active thinkers, always trying to make sense of the world

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information formed through experiences with objects and events

Assimilation

Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schema

Accommodation

Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood

Sensorimotor stage

first stage in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment (0-2 years old)

Object Permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

Preoperational Stage

second stage in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world; begin to pretend play

ages 2-7

Think Symbolically

one thing can represent something else

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes

Centration

in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

Irreversibility

in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

Concrete Operational stage

third stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking. (about 7 to 11 years old)

Conservation

in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking. (11 and beyond)

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory

Impact of the social context on a child’s cognitive growth

Scaffolding

process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help

Socialization

lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

Temperament

the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth

Fluid intelligence

ability to solve new problems, see relationships and think abstractly begin to decline around age 60

Crystallized intelligence

the accumulated knowledge, skills, experience and intelligence generally increases with age

Attachment

the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver

Secure

willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return

Avoidant

unattached; explore without “touching base”, can attach to stranger

Ambivalent/Resistant

insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return

Disorganized-Disoriented

insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed

Separation Anxiety

distress at being separated from parents or caregiver

Stranger Anxiety

distress upon encountering new, unfamiliar people

Critical periods for attachment and bonding

If those critical periods pass without adequate attachment, it can rewire a child’s brain with lifelong consequences (like language development)

Contact Comfort

human newborns need physical touch and nurturance

Language

a system for combining symbols (spoken, written, or signed) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others

Phonemes

the basic units of sound in language

Morphemes

the smallest units of meaning within a language

Semantics

the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences

Babbling Stage

make speech sounds both in and out of native language, First able to discriminate speech sounds or phonemes

Holophrastic Stage/one word stage

1st birthday

Productive language begins (speaking meaningful words)

Telegraphic Stage/two word stage

2nd birthday

Grammatically correct 2 word saying

Language is generative

users can create and understand an infinite number of sentences, that as long as they are shared and understood by the society you belong in

Critical periods

If a child has not been spoken to or learned (sign) language by age 7 they lose their ability to master any language.

Imprinting

rigid attachment process during an organism's critical period

Transitional Object

blanket

Authoritarian Parents

establish rules and expectations; expect obedience; punishment

Authoritative Parents

establish rules but also listen to input from children; reinforcement and punishment

Permissive / Indulgent Parents

parents submit to their children;

children given freedom

Adolescence

Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood

Puberty

the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak

Rites of Passage

Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

Formal operational stage

Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)

Emerging Adulthood

transitional period between adolescence and adulthood

Personal Fable

young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

Imaginary Audience

young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

trust vs mistrust

infancy-1yr, if trust is not developed as an infant the child becomes fearful, having a neglectful caregiver is an example of this

autonomy vs shame/doubt

1-3 yr, child develops a sense of independence or self doubt, asking for something they want like a cookie is an example of this

initiative vs guilt

3-6 yr, taking initiative on activities - may develop guilt if not successful, a child planing a tea party for her dolls is an example

industry vs inferiority

6-12 yr, child discovers academic abilities and social relationships, falling behind in reading could be an example (inferiority)

identity vs role confusion

12-18 yr, teens develop a sense of identity, trying a new style is an example

intimacy vs isolation

18-35 yrs, young adults develop intimate relationships or experience isolation

generativity vs stagnation

35-65 yrs, adults seek to generate a legacy for example trying to get a major promotion at work

integrity vs despair

65-death, reflecting on life/making sense of it