Multicultural Psychology Exam 3

Sex

Biological systems (chromosomes X/Y, differentiation, hormones), including male (XY), female (XX), and intersex (1–2% of Americans)

Gender

Sociocultural systems (norms, expectations, identity, femininity, masculinity)

Gender/sex neuroscience

“Gendered” differences in the brain are averages with great overlap and inconsistent combinations (mosaicism). Differences are influenced by enviroment and behavior (neuroplasticity).

Gender endocrinology

Both sexes possess “female” (estrogens) and “male” (androgens) hormones. Hormone levels vary individually and can be both the cause and outcome of behavior.

Gender similarities/differences psychology

Most humans possess both feminine and masculine psychological characteristics. 78% of gender differences are trivial or small; evidence supports more similarities than differences. Differences in sexuality are mostly small, except for use of pornography, masturbation, and casual sex attitudes.

Sex Assigned at Birth (SAB) vs. Gender Identity

Gender identity predicts experience more accurately than SAB due to the use of binary categories.

Gender performativity

(enactment of roles, clothing) is an "emergent feature of social situations.

Gender/Sex in culture

Binary view is culturally determined and malleable. Cultural practices/rituals guarantee children overlearn gender categories (through clothing and linguistic labeling), heightening the perceptual discriminability of gender/sex.

Costs of the Gender Binary

Reliance on the binary in research obstructs scientific progress, obscures reciprocal causal interactions between nature and nurture, denies the existence of intersex and nonbinary experience, and feeds stereotypes.

Evolutionary Functions of Gender and Cultural Exaggeration

Culturally defined sex/gender roles are presumably adaptive for reproduction and species survival (division of labor). However, cultures may exaggerate gender roles counterproductively (restrictive gender stereotypes or practices like FGM that can cause sterility or anorexia leading to amenorrhea)

Egalitarian Marriage Transgressions (Goyal et al.)

Violation of equalitarian norms, justice concerns (dishonesty, harm), and power imbalance. (Ex: Cheating/infidelity (more U.S., especially wives), Harm (physical, verbal, coercion, more U.S., especially husbands)).

Hierarchical Marriage Transgressions (Goyal et al.)

Violations of role-related duties (for both genders). (Ex: Financial irresponsibility (more Indian examples))

Intersectionality

Any two or more ADDRESSING identity categories that intersect, referring to the intersection of individual identities and sociocultural tensions connected to identity group memberships

Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Racial stratification is socially constructed and determines life chances across micro- and macro-levels, which constitutes racism.

Fundamental Tenets of CRT

1. Racial stratification is ordinary, ubiquitous, and reproduced in customs and experience, critically impacting the quality of lifestyles and life chances of racial groups.

2. The "race problem" is difficult to comprehend because claims of objectivity and meritocracy camouflage the self-interest, power, and privilege of white people.

3. Races are categories that society invents, manipulates, and recreates.

4. The experiential knowledge of Black and other subordinated groups is legitimate and appropriate because they are oppressed.

5. Aims to propagate social justice.

Mental Health Problems Attributable to Racism (Racial Stratification)

1. Nihilistic tendencies: Self-harm stemming from fatalism about change.

2. Anti-self issues: Estrangement from one's racial self and culture.

3. Suppressed anger expression: Anger is too dangerous to express.

4. Delusional denial tendencies (too dangerous to express).

5. Extreme racial paranoia (fear of the oppressed among White people)

Health

State of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not just absence of disease

Health Disparities

Different rates of health or illness that marginalized groups have compared to their privileged counterparts

Healthcare Disparities

Differences between groups in health insurance coverage, access to and use of care, and quality of care

Causes of Health Disparities

Racism, poverty, structural barriers, access to the healthcare system, and differential treatment

Access/Utilization Health Disparity

Compared to European Americans, Latinxs and African Americans are generally less likely to have access to nonemergency care or have visited a health professional in the past 12 months, often delaying care due to cost.

Physical Health Disparity

African Americans and Latinxs have higher incidence and death rates from HIV/AIDS; African Americans have a higher incidence and death rate from colorectal cancer.

COVID-19 Health Disparity

Life expectancy decreased significantly more for African Americans and Latinxs; deaths were higher for American Indians/Alaska Natives, African Americans, and Latinxs.

Mistrust Health Disparity

Historical events like the Tuskegee Experiment (African Americans studied for untreated syphilis without consent) generated profound mistrust of the health care system.

LGBTQI+ Youth Health Disparity

Experience higher rates of substance use, anxiety, depression, bullying, and suicide.

Mental Health Gender Differences

Women have higher levels of "internalizing" disorders; men have higher levels of "externalizing" disorders. Differences may be due to power differentials (women having less power) or socialization.

Cultural Concepts of Distress (CCD)

Ways cultural groups experience, understand, and communicate suffering. They include:

• Cultural syndromes: Mental disorders with unique clusters of symptoms that only occur in specific cultures.

• Cultural idioms of distress: Unique ways a cultural group expresses psychological distress.

• Cultural explanations of distress: How groups explain psychological symptoms.

Critique of Epidemiologic Studies

Issues include lack of representation/small sample size, within-group heterogeneity (acculturation, SES), and diagnostic accuracy (DSM diagnoses may not cover the range of disorders experienced by other groups.

Indigenous Worldview (Society of Indian Psychologists Commentary)

Hold a holistic and inter-relational view of health, where the body, emotions, mind, spirit, community, and land cannot be separated, and an individual cannot be separated from their relationships (including past and future generations).

American Worldview (Society of Indian Psychologists Commentary)

Typically believes behavior can be studied as discrete units, that compartmentalism is helpful, and that individuals should be autonomous and self-reliant. The Indigenous view holds that compartmentalism misses the beauty of the Whole.

Cultural Relevance (APA Ethics)

Ethics applied in culturally relevant ways; treatment must have relevance and meaning within the sociocultural context.

Humility (APA Ethics)

Recognizing power differences and reducing unintended harm by acknowledging one's own power relative to the individual and community

Epistemology

branch of philosophy dealing with knowledge—how we know that we "know" something.

White epistemology

Based on the scientific method and logical positivism. Narrows what can be studied, especially concerning race, and supports the status quo (dominance of racism). It can result in epistemic injustice, where knowledge benefits one ethnic group to the detriment of others.

Parent Posttrauma Victim Style Adaptation

Sadness, worry, mistrust, fear, overprotectiveness, emotional volatility, family symbiosis. Had the strongest effects on the child's need to undo and repair the past.

Parent Posttrauma Numb Style Adaptation

Pervasive silence, depletion of emotions, emotional barrenness, conspiracy of silence. Smaller significant effect on child’s need to undo and repair the past.

Parent Posttrauma Fighter Style Adaptation

Intense achievement drive, prohibits weakness, valuing mastery and justice, maintaining identity. Had no significant effect on the child's reparative impacts.

Multicultural Competence

Ability to work and be effective with individuals who are of a culture different from yours.

Four F Reactions (Threat Response)

Freeze, Flee, Fight, Fright

Five Ds of Difference (Avoidance)

Distancing, Denial (pretending no difference), Defensiveness (protecting self from discomfort), Devaluing (assessing difference as deficient). Discovery is the positive alternative, involving appreciating differences and seeking familiarity.

Perception of Similarity (Three Ss)

Things similar to us feel Simple (easy/comfortable), Safe (not a threat), and Sane (feel normal/validated)

Steps for Lifelong Learning and Competency

1. Gain awareness of your own cultural attitudes: Your attitudes are influenced by your own culture and may differ from others.

2. Gain understanding of other worldviews: Learn key historical events, sociopolitical issues, basic values, beliefs, and the dynamics of racism and oppression.

3. Develop culturally appropriate interpersonal skills: Requires an attitude of discovery and courage, empathy, action (speaking up for others as an ally), and practicing Cultural Humility.