Lecture #7: Learning (Chapter 8)

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the relationship between stimuli and responses.

Founder of Behaviorism

John B. Watson, who advocated for psychology to focus on observable behaviors rather than internal mental states.

Objective 1 of Behaviorism

To establish psychology as a science by focusing on observable behavior.

Objective 2 of Behaviorism

To apply behavioral principles to modify behavior through conditioning techniques.

Stimulus

Any event or object in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

Associative Learning

A type of learning in which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another, leading to a behavioral response.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of behavior, where behaviors are reinforced or punished.

UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

UCR (Unconditioned Response)

The natural response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.

NS (Neutral Stimulus)

A stimulus that initially has no effect on the response being studied; it later becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response (CR).

CR (Conditioned Response)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov's Experiment

Involves ringing a bell before presenting food to dogs, leading to salivation at the sound of the bell.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The process by which the conditioned response is weakened or eliminated when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Watson's Little Albert Study

Demonstrated classical conditioning in humans, where a young boy learned to fear a white rat by associating it with loud noises.

Systematic Desensitization

A therapeutic technique used to treat phobias and anxiety by gradually exposing the patient to the feared object or situation.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

States that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur, while those followed by unsatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Operant Conditioning

A learning principle where behavior is modified by its consequences, either through reinforcement or punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to enhance a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Shaping

Involves reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until the final behavior is exhibited.

Primary Reinforcer

A naturally occurring stimulus that satisfies a biological need, such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Observational Learning

A process in which individuals learn behaviors by observing others and the consequences of those behaviors.

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Demonstrated observational learning where children imitated aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll after watching an adult.

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that activate both when performing an action and when observing someone else performing the same action.

Overimitating

Occurs when an observer copies not just the relevant behavior but also irrelevant actions they observed during a demonstration.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engagement in a behavior due to internal satisfaction or pleasure derived from the activity itself.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engagement in a behavior based on external rewards or outcomes.

Prosocial Effects of Observational Learning

Positive behaviors learned through observation, such as sharing and cooperation.

Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning

Negative behaviors learned through observation, such as aggression.

Violent Television

Research indicates that exposure may increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors in children.