criminology 11, 12, 13

Gender gap

consistent difference between women and men in crime rates

generalization problem

can theories for men explain women’s crime too?

liberation hypothesis

as women gain equality and freedom, they face fewer informal controls and therefore have more opportunity to offend

economic marginalization hypothesis

poor, uneducated women have become more economically vulnerable than men and thus, their crime is linked to survival needs

Sutherland

Boys and girls are socialized differently. Girls are more closely supervised and taught to be “nice”

Morris

girls have less access to criminal opportunities and face more social disapproval. They internalize stricter moral codes and feel more guilt for wrongdoing

Steffensmeier and Allan

gender norms, physicality, and histories of abuse all shape offending. Masculine vs. feminine traits (masculine associated with crime)

Self-Control theory

Hirschi and Gottfredson. Low self-control and opportunity equals crime. The root cause is ineffective parenting

Power Control Theory

Hagan. gender differences in risk-taking come from parenting and family power structures. Class element (higher=more risk taking)

Life course perspective

social controls vary by age/stage. Later version looks at gendered schemas in parenting

Strain Theories

frustration from blocked goals or negative relationships motivates crime. Gender differences explain crime differences

Broidy and Agnew

different types of strain, emotional reactions, and circumstances for each gender

Liberal feminism

focus on equality and socialization differences. women commit fewer crimes due to less opportunities and stricter gender roles

radical feminism

patriarchy is the root of women’s oppression and victimization. Focus on male violence. Advocate for law reform

Intersectional feminism

gender interacts with race, class, and sexuality, which shapes both victimization and criminalization

Miller

girls join gangs for emotional support and escape from abusive homes

Campbell

Female gang members often come with single-parent homes with unemployment and substance abuse

Steffensmeier and Haynie

Structural disadvantage affects both sexes similarly. Gender differences in causes may be smaller than assumed

Domestic violence 

major area of gender-crime research. Seen as both a crime and a public health/human rights issue

Goodlin and Dunn

less educated victims more likely to face occurring family violence

Macmillan and Gartner

economic power dynamics matter more than income level. Risk heightens when women do not work

Powers and Kaukinen

for white women, employment increases risk of violence. For radicalized women, employment’s effect is less clear

Femicide

women are less likely to be homicide victims overall, but when they are the killer is often male and known to them. They are more likely to be killed at home

Homicide

Men are more likely to be killed by acquaintances/strangers, and in public

Gender stratification

refers to the unequal distribution of power, privilege, and resources between men and women. reflected in crime patterns 

critical criminology

challenges mainstream criminology, focusing on power, inequality, and social justice. It aims to expose and resist oppression rather than study it

Assumptions of critical criminology

power is unequally distributed, laws serve the powerful, change is necessary

Neo-marxism

the state and justice system protects the interests of the rich and controls the poor. To end crime, we must end capitalism

Marxist theory

crime results from the inequality created by capitalism

Rigakos

policing serves capitalist interests

Reiman

US justice system criminalizes poverty, punishing the poor harshly while ignoring white-collar crime

feminist criminology

seeks to uncover gender bias, highlight women’s experiences, and fight violence and inequality

marxist feminism 

links gender and class inequality caused by capitalism

socialist feminism

combines marxist and socialist views. Cakks fir systemic change to end both capitalism and patriarchy

radical feminism

sees patriarchy as universal and seeks a complete social overhaul

critical race theory

laws and justice systems reinforce racism. Race is a social construct embedded in institutions

postcolonial theory

examines how colonial histories and the idea of “otherness” still shape global power and discrimination

left realism

crime is real and rooted in social inequality and marginalization

relative depriovation

crime arises when people feel deprived compared to others

subculture

groups form shared values/norms in response to inequality

Young

economic insecurity and fear (among middle classes) drive intolerance and support for harsher punishments

marginalization

exclusion of groups from social/economic opportunity

post structuralism

power exists everywhere. Language and discourse shape how society defines crime, punishment, and deviance

peace-making criminology

promotes social justice, healing, and equality as paths to reduce crime. Focuses on restorative justice

Christie

the justice system is a “pain delivery system” serving profit. Advocates for humane responses 

Woolford

restorative justice can help transform societies by addressing root social inequalties 

choice theory

framework for understanding how people decide to commit crimes by weighing perceived costs and benefits. Assumes individuals are rational and make conscious decisions

the crime drop

significant decline in street crime in Canada. Due to reduced adolescent offending and better security measures. Crime is harder to commit now 

rational choice theory

crime occurs when the perceived benefits are greater than the perceived costs. Perceptions matter (misjudgements, drugs or peer influence can skew decision-making)

Bounded rationality

by Simon. decisions are imperfect due to limited time and info

utility maximization

choices aim to get the greatest reward for the lowest cost

limited rationality

some “irrational” criminal decisions occur due to poor judgement, lack of info, or impairment

crime scripts

step-by-step planning and decision-making for each criminal act. even seemingly spontaneous crimes involve some rational preparation

routine activity theory

by Felson. Crime requires the convergence of: likely offenders, suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian

CRAVED

by Clark. Stolen items are concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable, and disposable

crime pattern theory

crime is not random, but follows patterns shaped by urban movement

crime opportunity theory

crime levels rise with opportunities

dispositional theories

focus on individual tendencies (psychological/biological)

environmental criminology

emphasizes targets, guardians, and places as key factors