ANTA102 - Polar History

What are sources used by historians to collect data?

Print Media:

- Newspapers

- Journals

- Magazines

- Reports

- Correspondence (letters)

- Diaries/personal accounts

Artwork:

- Paintings

- Sketches

- Drawings

- Photographs

- Radio/television

- Footages

New Techniques:

- Interviews

- Oral History

What are the locations of data and documents?

Archives

Libraries

Companies

Departments

Museums

Private possession

What are dangers to documents?

Fragility

Impact of natural disaster or war

Fire

Construction work

Wrong storage

Handle without care

Where did the name "Antarctica" come from?

Greek compound word that means opposite of the Arctic.

The Greek thought there must be a continent in the Southern hemisphere as a counterpart to the Northern hemisphere, in order to balance the earth. They thought the land had special creatures and treasures, and an obsession with finding this place began.

Who discovered and when was the Solomon Island discovered? What does this mean for Antarctica?

Discovered in 1568 by Pedro Frenandes de Queros and Alvaro de Mendana de Neria.

This was thought to be near a continental "El Dorado." Interest rose and countries seaked dominance over the oceans, trade, and economy. Major discoveries began and the East India Company and Dutch East India Company were established.

Who discovered the Strait of Magellan? When?

Ferdinand Magellan

1520

Who discovered the Drake Passage? When?

Francis Drake

1578

Who discovered Bouvet Island and penguins? When?

Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier

1739

Who discovered the Kerguelen Islands? When?

Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen Trémarec

1771-1772

James Cook

- first to cross the antarctic circle in 1773 ; whaling and seal hunting started almost immediately after

When was Antarctica first included on a map of the world? What was the map called? Who published it?

1531

The Oronce Fine Map

Published by Oronce Fine

What was the purpose of maps in the 17th century?

display of power and status — did not care to be accurate, just wanted to show off

When was the first sighting of the Antarctic continent? Who?

Russian expedition under Fabian Bellingshausen (1819)

Great debates about who was first

When was the Heroic Era? Who was involved?

1900-1917/1922

Scott, Drygalski, Bruce, Nordenskjöld, Charcot, Shirase, Filchner, Mawson, Shackleton, Amundsen

Antarctic exploration was increasing because of economic interests, why?

Trading and traffic routes

Mineral resources

Fishery, whaling, and seal hunting

Why was there seal hunting? What are the techniques of hunting?

For seal fur/wool

Collection of oil

Flinching a yearling (young)

Whale fishery (using spears)

What were common whale products?

Candles

Soap

Parafin

Oil (lighting and lubricant)

Umbrellas

Perfume

Corsets

Glycerine

Fertilizer

Food resource

Medicine

When was factory ship whaling?

1905 onward

What was used to hunt whales? Who and when was invented?

The harpoon gun. Creates by Svend Foyn in 1870.

Slipway. Started in 1923. The stern on ship was open to pull whales onboard. The whale claw to pull the whale through the slipway was invented in 1932.

What are the hunted species of whale?

Killer whale/orca

Minke Whale

Sel Whale

Humpback whale

Right whale

Finback whale

Blue whale

What policies regulate whaling?

1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling - aim: to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry

1982: moratorium on commercial whaling established and since 1985/86 in force Regulates hunting of 13 species of great whales (whales, dolphins, porpoises).

Who are some sealers and whalers but also scientists/explorers? What did they do?

Eduard Dallmann

- found whaling grounds around Antarctic Peninsula, and he discovered islands. He published his whaling charts

Carl Anton Larson

- navigator, ship master, built a whaling station, established a meteorological observatory, discovered parts of Antarctic region, and found new whaling grounds

What are the scientific interest in Antarctic exploration?

Meteorology

Climatology

Magnetism

Geography

Geology

Biology

Zoology

Oceanography

Marine Science

What are some technical innovations that came from Antarctic exploration?

Aircraft, balloon, air ship

Radio operating

Different materials of clothing

Different sorts of vehicles

Photographs

Preserved foods

What are the ways of transport in Antarctica?

Shackleton's car (1907/09)

Nansen sledge (used today)

Vickers monoplane (1911)

What are some matters of national prestige related to early polar expeditions?

Political interests

Heroism

Territorial claims

Imperialism

Colonialism

Race to the Poles

Who reached the pole first?

Amundsen reached the pole on December 14th, 1911

What Antarctic expedition took place during World War 2?

Operation Tabarin, 1944

Maps were previously used to demonstrate power and status, but by the 19th century there was a demand for accurate maps. Why?

Dirven by means of conquering and colonizing new land

- economic interests

- political motives

- claiming land

- "race"

What factors started geography?

Wars and maps, geological maps, colonies

In the 1860s and 1870s, geography became part of the university systems in Germany and Britain

Learned Societies (philosophical, geographical, royal societies) had various purposes, what were those purposes?

- Establishing/institutionalizing science

- Education, outreach to wider public

- Financing expeditions and oversee publications

- Often highly national (some international conferences)

Geography became part of school curriculums, what was the motivation for this?

- to teach the importance of colonies and commercial benefits

- education for the wider public

- publications in geographical journals and magazines

How did geographical societies and communities influence Antarctic research?

- Committees within the GSs were established to organize polar expeditions

- Strong personalities urged governments to act towards research plans (funding)

- Wanted to beat other countries to polar expeditions and discoveries

Who was the founder of modern geography? What did he do?

Alexander von Humboldt

- new approach to research

- influenced others

What countries did national expeditions from 1820-1840s?

USA

France

Britian

When was the first International Polar Year (IPY)? Who participated?

1882-1883

USA

Germany

Sweden

Russia

Austro-Hungary

Netherlands

Britian

Denmark

Norway

Finland

France

- 15 new stations

When was the start of international collaboration in the Antarctic?

1901-1903

When was the first overwintering in the Antarctic? What was the missions name?

1897-1899

Belgica Expedition

Who came up with the term cryosphere?

Henryk Arctowski

He was on the Belgica mission

What was discovered on the German South Pole Expedition from 1901-1903?

Discovered Kaiser Wilhelm 11 Land and the Guassberg.

Observations on snow and ice, meteorology and magnetism.

What instrument was used for measuring thickness and temperature in different layers?

Ice drill

- only tool used, easy to compare data

What happened on the National Antarctic Expedition from 1901-1904?

Expedition that reached the farthest South at this time

(82 degrees South)

What was discovered om the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition from 1902-1904?

Discovered new land to the east of the Weddell Sea

- first audio recording of Weddell seals

- First movie of a penguin rookery

- William Bruce

We have continuous meteorological records from Orcada Station, Argentinean Station since when?

Since 1904

What was discovered/happened on the Swedish South Polar Expedition from 1901-1903?

The first who explored the Larson Ice Shelf

recognized different ice conditions

She identified the difference between ice shelf and continental ice, and name it "ice shelf."

What happened/discovered on the French Antarctic Expedition from 1903-1905?

Expedition to find and help Nordenskjold

18 volumes on scientific results from trip

No international collaboration

What happened/discovered on the Second German Antarctic Expedition from 1911-1912?

Plan was to investigate the southernmost portion of the Atlantic and the southernmost portion of the Pacific Ocean.

Lead by Wilhelm Flichner.

Expedition has massive problems but they did discover Prinz Luitpold Land and Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, and the Filchner Trench (deep sea oceanographic measurements).

What happened/discovered on the Australian Antarctic Expedition from 1911-1914?

Lead by Douglas Mawson

Plan was to chart the 3200 km coast directly south of Australia. They put the first working radio station and the first aircraft in the Antarctic.

- famous deaths and survival triumphs

What happened/discovered on the Japanese Antarctic Expedition from 1911-1912?

Nobu Shirase was leader.

Plan was to reach the South Pole before Scott.

They ended up investigating unexplored territory (Alexandra Range).

Had second part of expedition after returning to Australia with no gear.

What things were collected from Antarctica?

Fossilized leafs

Penguin eggs

What happened/discovered on the Endurance Expedition - Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition from 1914-1917?

???

Ross Sea Party

Meteorological observations, tidal observations, biology.

What happened/discovered on the Weddell Sea Expedition in 2019?

Goal was to find Shackleton's lost ship.

they did not end up finding the ship.

Ship was found 3 years later.

Wolfgang was on this crew

What was the mechanical age? Inventions?

New technologies brought new opportunities in approaching science.

- Aeroplanes, radio operation, snowmobiles, motor driven plants to produce electricity, aerial photography

- Snow cruiser

Significant inventions?

Radio improved communications to and from Antarctica. Improved public support b/c people could hear live news of their money and support efforts/successes (marketing).

Planes allowed for the many successful flights over Antarctica (Lincoln Ellsworth).

What invention was used on the German Meteor Expedition from 1925-1927?

Echo-sounders were used to map the ocean floor. It was originally invented for finding hidden submarines for WW1.

What are some famous US expeditions?

Flight over the South Pole (1929-1930)

Second Expedition (1933-1935)

US Antarctic Service Expedition (1939-1941)

Operation Highjump (1946-1947)

Operation Deep Freeze (1955-1956)

by Admiral Richard Byrd

What countries have claim over parts of Antarctica?

Argentina

Chile

New Zealand

France

Australia

Norway

United Kingdom

What were the main transportation methods in the Antarctic in the 1930s?

Ship, aeroplanes, dogs, sledges

- mixture of old style and modern style expedition

What was the biggest achievement of the Northern Base in the Argentine Islands

Surveyed and mapped Graham Land coastline.

Undertook zoological and geological observations.

What was accomplished on the German Schwabenland Expedition from 1938-1939?

Whaling ground securing

Mapping and areal photography and geology

What was done on Operation Highjump (1946-47)?

Looking for aliens in the Antarctic

What happened/goals of Operation Tabarin (1943-1944)?

Secret expedition to prove they are still present in Antarctica. Wanted to prove they still claim land to Argentina and Chile (overlapping territories).

Did research on meteorology, glaciology, geology, biology, and surveys.

What did Antarctic exploration have to compete with in the 1970s?

Race to Space

What was Operation Deep Freeze (1955-1956)?

US preparation expedition for Internation Geophysical Year (1957-58).

What were the goals of the International Geophysical Year (1957-58)?

Research...

- Glaciology

- Seismic and geodetic surveys

- Earth magnetic field from core of the planet into space

- Aurora Australis

- Biology

- Oceanography

**NO GEOLOGY

What was New Zealand's contribution to the IGY?

The Darwin Glacier Servey Party

Northern Survey Party

Southern Survey Party

all explored glaciers

explored uncharted land

flew first successful plane from Weddell Sea to Scott Base - first single engine aircraft to fly nonstop across Antarctica

What was the purpose of the Antarctic Treaty System?

Peaceful exploration of Antarctica

What is social history?

Everyday life (food, medicine, income, etc)

Personal view (diaries, letters, photos)

Sources (diaries, correspondence, photos, certificates, CVs)

Totally different from social science!

Describe the conditions for living on a ship

- often were trapped in the ice and drifted with the tides

- single cabins also used as private offices and laboratory

- limited use of bathrooms

- lots of labor (constantly trying to free ship of ice and snow)

Conditions of living in a hut in Antarctica

- constantly improving hut (layers of seaweed, penguin skin, felt, etc)

- hut style varied between countries

- limited to no privacy

- heating and lighting issues

- lots of humidity

- entertainment was very important

- wind noise

- heating with blubber (greasy and fishy)

Clothing Materials

Fabric

Wool

Leather

Fur

Silk

list common medical issues

Accidents (broken bones, cuts, bites)

Diseases (heart conditions, tuberculosis, syphilis)

Surgery (appendix, boils)

Scurvy (deficiency in nutrition)

Poor hygiene (clothing and cleaning)

Frostbite

What are the stages of frostbite?

Frostnip (red skin)

Superficial frostbite (white skin)

Deep frostbite (black skin)

Eduard Dallman, Carl Anton Larson

whalers and scientist who discovered regions of Antarctica & whaling ground surrounding it

Alexander von Humboldt

founder of geography

Dobrowolski

invented the term cryosphere

The Antarctic Treaty (1959) conditions

agreement for peaceful collaboration

• antarctica does not and will never belong to any one country

• all scientific research must be shared with all countries

• antarctica can not be used as a nuclear waste disposal site

hierarchy of command

captain to expedition leaders, officers

expedition leader to officers, scientists

officers to crew