Human Growth and Development Exam 2

does the brain growth slow or speed up during early childhood?

slow

at 6 years old, what % of adult volume is the brain at?

95%

what is myelination?

nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells

what does myelination do?

increases the speed and efficiency at which information travels through the nervous system

what does myelination promote?

the development of abilities through neural connections

what contextual factors affect brain growth and development?

poverty and parenting quality

children’s brains undergo _____ especially in the frontal lobes?

rapid, distinct bursts of growth

what age group are children the most active than they will be at any other later period?

preschool

what gross motor skills do three year old’s have?

simple movements (hopping, jumping, running)

what gross motor skills do four year old’s have?

athletic movements at home and school, and more adventurous

what gross motor skills do five year old’s have?

adventurous stunts in gyms and on playground equipment, and racing with peers and parents

recommended sleep for young children?

10-13 hours uninterrupted

common sleep problems in young children?

narcolepsy, insomnia, nightmares, child maltreatment

negative outcomes of sleep problems in young children?

attention problems, worse school readiness profiles, being overweight, ADHD

overweight young children have?

serious health problems, eating behaviors strongly influenced from caregivers

obesity can lead to?

type 2 diabetes and hypertension

what are obesity prevention guidelines for young children?

5+ servings of fruits and vegetables, 2 hours or less of screentime, 1+ hour of physical activity, zero sugar sweetened beverages

how much daily physical activity does WHO recommend for young children?

3 hours

what were the leading causes of death in young children in 2019 (U.S.)

accidents, homicide, congenital malformations, deformations and chromosomal abnormalities, cancer

individual characteristics that enhance young children’s safety?

social skills and emotional regulation, impulse control, use of personal protection

school/peer characteristics that influence young children’s safety?

home/school partnerships, absence of playground hazards, injury prevention and safety promotion policies/programs

family/home characteristics that influence young children’s safety?

child management and parenting skills, parent protective behaviors, home safety equipment

community characteristics that influence young children’s safety?

positive activities for families, active surveillance of hazards, effective prevention policies

what age is Piaget’s preoperational stage?

2-7 years old (Piaget’s second stage)

In Piaget’s preoperational stage, what do children represent the world with?

words, images, drawings. children form stable concepts and begin to reason 

what are operations? (preoperational stage)

reversible mental actions that allow young children to do mentally what they used to do physically

what is preoperational?

children cannot perform operations yet

what are the two substages of Piaget’s preoperational stage?

symbolic function and intuitive thought

what happens during the symbolic function substage?

the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present, expand their mental world, limited by egocentrism and animism

what is animism?

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

what occurs during the intuitive thought substage?

children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to many questions, difficulty understanding what is not seen, asks “W” questions

What are “W” questions

Who, what, when, where, why questions

how old are kids during symbolic function substage?

2-4 years old

how old are kids during intuitive thought substage?

4-7 years old

what is egocentrism?

the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s

difference between a 3 and 11 year old’s drawings? (symbolic drawings)

3 year old would draw a pelican kissing a seal, creative. while the 11 year old would have a realistic and neater drawing, less creative

what is centration?

a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others (evidenced by conservation)

what is conservation?

the awareness that altering an object or substance’s appearance does not change it’s basic properties

what is Vogotsky’s theory?

children think and understand primarily through social interaction

what is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

the range of tasks too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance

what is scaffolding?

changing the level of support and instruction provided (when learning a new task, more support is given)

difference between ZPD and scaffolding?

ZPD is what the child needs help with, and scaffolding the help you give

what is memory?

the retention of information over time. central to cognitive development

what is short term memory? (STM)

retain information for up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal

what is rehearsal?

repeating information after presentation to keep information in STM

does STM increase or decrease during early childhood?

increase

how accurate are young children’s long term memories? (LTM)

LTM is relatively permanent, and holds huge amounts of info, if given appropriate prompts, children can remember a lot. 

what is autobiographical memory?

memory of significant events and experiences in one’s life

example of autobiographical memory?

favorite elementary school teacher, 5th birthday party

what is executive function?

higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain’s prefrontal cortex

what is executive function used for in early childhood?

to manage thoughts, control behavior, and direct goals. involved developmental advances in cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and delay of gratification

what is the child’s theory of mind?

awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others

what is self understanding?

representation of self, the substance and content of self conceptions, physical characteristics, bodily attributes

children’s self descriptions tend to be…?

unrealistically positive and tend to confuse ability and effort. to protect from negative feelings about themselves.

how do children start perceiving others?

in terms of psychological traits (“she is nice, he is mean”)

children begin to develop an understanding of…? (understanding others)

joint commitments. (as they approach their 3rd birthday, collaborative interactions increasingly involve obligations to a partner, learn from others behavior)

the young child’s growing awareness of self is linked to…?

feeling an expanding range of emotions, they experience many emotions in the course of a day

examples of self conscious emotions?

pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt

what are self conscious emotions influenced by?

parents’ responses to children’s behavior

what do children start to understand with emotional development?

that certain situations are more likely to evoke certain emotions, the cause and effects of feelings, increase their words to describe emotions, that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people

emotional regulation plays a key role in children’s ability to…?

manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others

what are emotion coaching parents?

parents monitor their children’s emotions. view negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, coach them in how to effectively deal with emotions

what are emotion dismissing parents?

view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions. linked to toddlers’ lower emotional competence

emotional regulation and peer relations?

emotions play a role in the success of a child’s peer relationships, regulating emotions leads to peer relations benefits, frequent expression of anger predicts lower social competence

what is androgens?

a hormone that promotes the development of male physical sex characteristics

what is estrogen?

a hormone that influences the development of female physical sex characteristics

what are Baumrind’s parenting styles?

authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, indulgent

what is authoritarian parenting style?

a restrictive, punitive style. child is to follow directions and respect parents’ work and effort, allows little verbal exchange, associated with children’s social incompetence and a higher level of aggression

what is authoritative parenting?

encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. extensive verbal give and take is allowed, associated with children’s social competence and prosocial behaviors

what is neglectful parenting (uninvolved)?

parent is uninvolved in the child’s life. associated with social incompetence in children, along with poor self control, low self esteem, immaturity, and alienation.

what is indulgent parenting (permissive)?

parents are highly involved with their children, but place few demands or controls on them. children never learn to control their behavior and always expect to get their way. they rarely learn respect for others, difficulty controlling their behavior. they may be domineering, egocentric, and noncompliant, difficulties with peer relations

which parenting style has the most benefits to the child and family as a whole?

authoritative

what is coparenting?

the support that parents provide one another in raising a child

coparenting conditions that place children at risk for problems include?

poor coordination between parents, undermining of the other parent, lack of cooperation and warmth, disconnection by one parent

what percent of American children have siblings?

80%

what is a dimension of most sibling relationships?

conflict

what is the most frequent parental reaction when there’s conflict between siblings?

to do nothing at all

what are the three most important aspects of sibling relationships?

emotional quality, familiarity and intimacy, and considerable variation

what is emotional quality?

intense positive and negative emotions are often expressed

what are familiarity and intimacy?

know each other well and use this to be close or tease each other with

what is considerable variation?

each set of siblings fight differently

sibling relationships and birth order?

firstborn children have been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled. only children are often achievement oriented. birth order by itself shows limited accuracy. 

favoritism in parents?

majority of parents have a favorite, linked to lower self esteem

what is play?

a pleasurable activity that a child engages in and is an important aspect of development

what are the types of play?

sensorimotor play, practice play, pretense/symbolic play, social play, constructive play, games.

what is sensorimotor play?

when infants derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemes

what is practice play?

involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when mastery is required

what is pretense/symbolic play?

transforms the physical environment into symbols

what is social play?

involves interactions with peers

what is constructive play?

combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation

what is games play?

activities that are engaged in for pleasure and that have rules

what is screen time?

tv, video games, computers, phones

too much screen time can have a negative influence by?

making children passive learners, distracting from homework, teaching stereotypes, violent models of aggression, unrealistic views of the world, less time spent in play and peers, decreased physical activity, increase in obesity, higher rates of aggression, lower cognitive development, inattention problems, poor sleep habits

is increased TV linked to aggressive behaviors?

yes, along with playing violent video games

how does the brain change in middle-late childhood?

significant changes in structures and regions (especially in prefrontal cortex) occur, cortical thickness increases, activation of some brain areas increases while in others it decreases, brain pathways and circuitry continue to increase

what is a learning disability?

difficulty in learning involving understanding or using spoken or written language. disability can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, or spelling 

true or false? a learning disability can be the result of a hearing, visual or motor disability, emotional disorder or economic disadvantage

false

what is dyslexia?

a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell

what is dysgraphia?

a difficulty in handwriting

what is dyscalculia?

a developmental arithmetic disorder