reading skills

loaded language

faulty rhetoric, using emotionally charged or biased wording, ask for neutral rephrasing or specific evidence

scarcity appeal

faulty rhetoric, creating urgency to manipulate decisions, ask wether urgency is relevant to the arguments merit

exaggeration

faulty rhetoric, overstating the consequences or scope, request realistic, evidence-based claims

ad hominem

fallacy, attacking the speaker instead of the argument, refocus on the argument, not the person

straw man

fallacy, misrepresenting an argument to refute it, clarify the original argument

slippery slope

fallacy, arguing that one step will lead to extreme outcomes

circular reasoning

fallacy, using the conclusion as a premise, ask for independent evidence

hasty generalization

fallacy, drawing conclusions from too little data, ask for a broader more representative sample

appeal to ignorance

fallacy, assuming something is true because it hasn’t been disproved, emphasize the need for positive evidence, not absence of disproof

false cause (post hoc) 

fallacy, mistaking correlation for causation, ask for proof of causal link

false equivalence

fallacy, treating unequal things as equal, analyse whether the comparison is actually fair

appeal to authority

fallcy, claiming truth because a figure supports it, ask for real evidence or credentials

false dilemma / false dichotomy

both, presenting only two options when more exist, point out missing alternatives

appeal to emotion

both, exploiting feelings instead of logic, ask for factual support rather than emotional manipulation

red herring

both, distracting with an unrelated issue, refocus on te original topic or question

appeal to bias

both, using prejudice or stereotypes to sway opinion, ask for argument based on facts, not identity

oversimplification

both, reducing a compley issure to something too simple, highlight missing complexity or variables

guilt-tripping

both, using guilt to influence decisions, point out emotional manipulation and ask for logic

as populum

both, asserting a claim is true or morally right because it aligns with the values, beliefs, or feelings of the majority, remind the speaker that popullarity doesn’t equal truth. Ask for evidence or reasoning beyond public opinion

bandwagon appeal (a type of ad populum)

both, claiming something is right because it’s popular, popularity is not truth—ask for independent justification

logical fallacy

flaws in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. they may seem persuasive but are not logically valid

faulty rhetoric

persuasive techniques or arguments that are misleading, manipulative, or unethical, often using logical fallcies to do so

why prepare for reading

• prepares your mind

• helps you focus

• makes it more interesting

• improves concentration (expect)

• improves memory (retain)

Steps to preprare before reading

1. preview → mental outline, expectations and makes reading easier and faster

• titel for topic clues

• author / credibility 

• headnote for background info

• first/last paragraphs for main ideas and conlusion

• topic sentences for key points 

2. activate background knowledge → makes reading more meaningful, interesting and memorable

• connect to topic with own experience or knowledge

3. writing guiding questions → stay focused and check comprehension

• turn title,… into questions 

rhetoric

• the art and skill of persuasive or effective communication

• strategic use of language, gestures and other forms of communication 

• influence, persuade, or convey ideas to an audience 

• public speaking, writigm various forms of discourse to achieve soecific goals to impact listeners or readers

three pillars of rhetoric

Ethos, Pathos, Logos

Ethos

credibility, authority and trustworthiness with knowledge and moral character to gain the audiences confidence and persuade them 

pathos

emotions and values of the audience by storytelling, vivid langugae and evocative iagery to elicit an emotional response and create a connection, tapping into feelings empathy and shared experiences

logos

reason, logic, evidence by presenting a clear and logical argument supported by facts, data, statistics, logical reasoning and examples to convince the audience through logical thinking and rationa analysis

rhetorical devices

linguistic tools that enhance the effectiveness and impact of rhetoric. They capture the audience’s attention, evoke emotions, persuade or engage them to leave a lasting impression

anaphora

repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or lines — to emphasize a point and create rhythm or emotional resonance

antithesis

juxtaposition of contrastin ideas in a balanced structure — to highlight differences and create a memorable impact

alliteration

repition of the same inital consonant sounds in close proximity — to make phrases cathy, memorable, or musical

metaphor

implied comparison between two unlike things — to create vivid imagery and deepen understanding

hyperbole

intentional overstatement for emphasis or effect — to create humor, emphasize a point, or even evoke strong feelings

rhetorical question

a question posed for effect, not requiring an answer — to provoke thought or emphasize a point

parallelism

use of similar grammatical structures in phrases or sentences — to create rhythm, balance, and clarity

irony

expression of meaning by using language that signifies the opposite — to create humor or emphasize a point subtly 

euphemism

mild or indirect word used to replace one that may be harsh or blunt — to soften hardh truths or present ideas diplomatically

personification

attribution of human qualities to non-human things — to create vivid imagery or emotional connection

tips for reading aloud

articulation, meaningful chunks & pauses, emphasize key words, prosody, pace, vary volume, practice

articulation

say the words clearly — tongue twisters — understanding

meaningful chunks & pauses

break sentences and use long and short pauses, importance of silence — / // — listener comprehension and allowing listeners ot digest information and manipulate emotion 

emphasize key words

saying some more loudly and slowly or softer of pausing — hihglight — additionally pick random word to keep it interesting 

prosody

vary tone and pitch to match the mood — mark rise and falling intonation — highlight and correctly represent the mood 

pace

vary pace — underline — empahiszing emotional cues such as excitement or boredom

vary volume

vary volume — * — keeping the audience interested and creating tensiona dn mood

practice 

record and listen for improvement 

why stay active while reading

• keeps focus

• helps understand and remember key points

• encourages to question and think critically

  • easier to summariize and discuss

Staying active while reading

1. annotate

2. monitor comprehension

3. awnser guiding questions

   1. identify main ideas and supporting details

annotate

• highlight key ideas, definitions and exmaples 

• circle unfamiliar and context clues 

• write sympols in the margins 

• short note about reactions and opinions 

→ deepens understadning and prepares for tasks

monitor comprehension

• after paragraph: understood? own words= connect o main idea?

  • if confused reread

→ helps notice when lost and early fix

answser guiding questions

• return ti questions 

• add notes 

• revise and add questions 

→ keeps reading focused and purposeful 

identify main ideas and supporting details

• mark topic senteneces and key evidence

• look for transitions to see connections

• note repeated words and themes that show importance

→ builds a clear map of the text’s logic and structure