Speech act theory

Performative

Utterances whose function is to perform an action rather than describe a state of affairs.

Constative

Utterances used to state or describe something, and can be evaluated as true or false.

Explicit Performatives

Performatives containing a performative verb that explicitly names the act being performed (e.g., I promise, I apologize).

Implicit performatives

Performatives that lack an explicit performative verb but still perform an act (e.g., I’ll come tomorrow = a promise).

Performative verb

A verb that names the act being performed in uttering it (e.g., promise, warn, apologize).

The “Hereby” Test

A diagnostic: if hereby can be inserted naturally, the sentence is likely a performative.

Felicity Conditions (Austin)

Conditions that must hold for a performative to be successful

Austin’s 3 felicity conditions (list)

1. Conventionality Conditions

2. Correctness & Completeness

3. Sincerity Conditions

Conventionality Conditions

There must be a recognised procedure and appropriate circumstances.

Correctness & Completeness

The procedure must be executed properly and fully.

Misfire

A failed speech act due to violating conditions A or B (procedure incorrect or incomplete).

Sincerity Conditions

Participants must have appropriate intentions/feelings.

Abuse

A failed speech act due to insincerity (violation of condition C).

Locutionary Act

The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression (the words themselves).

Illocutionary Act

The action the speaker intends to perform in saying something

Illocutionary Force

The conventional function or purpose of an utterance (e.g., request, assertion, apology).

Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID)

A linguistic marker that signals illocutionary force (e.g., explicit performative verbs).

Perlocutionary Act

The effect an utterance has on the hearer

Perlocutionary Effect

The specific outcome produced by the utterance (e.g., hearer opens the safe).

Representative

Speaker makes a statement about the world (word to world) (claim/assert/report)

Directive

Hearer must change the world (do something) to comply with the words (world to word) (order/advise)

Commissive

Commits the speaker to a future course of actions (world to word) (promise/offer/pledge)

Expressive

Express a psychological state

Declaration

Implements immediate change in the current state of affairs (Bidding/declaring/firing)

Uptake

The hearer must understand the performative nature of a statement otherwise it is defective

Searle’s Typology of Speech Acts

1. Representatives

2. Directives

3. Commissives

4. Expressives

5. Declarations

Hare (1970)

Layers of meaning in speech acts

1. Phrastic

2. Tropic

3. Neustic

Phrastic

The core meaning of a sentence

Tropic

The mood of the sentence (link to illucutionary force)

Neustic

The speech act value of a sentence uttered (reported speech NEGATES this)

Indirect Speech Act

An utterance where the sentence form and illocutionary force do not match (e.g., question used as request).

Politeness (in Indirect Speech Acts)

Indirectness used to mitigate face‑threatening acts.

Illocutionary Act Potential (IAP)

The range of illocutionary acts a sentence can conventionally perform.

Searle’s dual force model

1. Primary illocutionary force

2. Secondary illocutionary force

Primary illocutionary force

The act that the speaker actually intends to perform

Secondary illocutionary force

The act directly indicated by the sentence type and conventional force