RESEARCH METHODS / KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

psychology

is the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour

empirical evidence

is information that is obtain from direct and systematic observation or experimentation

non-science

are ideas that are formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles

pseudoscience

a collection of beliefs, ideas or practises that are mistakenly or claim to do scientific, but are not due to there being no use of methods of science used.

scientific method

a procedure that is used to objectively establish facts through testing, and experimentation

theory

is a set of principles or a proposition that is used to explain something or make a prediction about relationships between concepts.

what is a theory’s main function

to predict and explain

model

is a representation of a concept, process or behaviour, used to simply or make something easier to understand

what is the main function of a model

to simply and represent

aim

is a statement that is used to explain the purpose of an investigation

hypothesis

is a testable prediction about the outcomes of an investigation

variable

is an aspect of an experiment that is measured or manipulated by the experimenter that can have an influence on the results of an investigation

population

is a group of people who are the focus of the research and where sample groups are drawn from

controlled experiment

is where the causal relationship between 2 variables is tested in a controlled environment

independent variable

a variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to determine whether it has a direct influence on the dependent variable

dependent variable

the variable that is measured by the experimenter to determine whether it has been influenced by the independent variable

extraneous variable

a variable that has the ability to effect the DV other than the IV, yet it can be controlled so no impact will occur

confounding variable

a variable other than the IV that systematically has an effect on the DV and cannot be controlled.

operationalise variables

specifying exactly how variables will be measured or manipulated in an experiment

controlled variables

variables other than the IV that are held constant by the experimenter to ensure that the changes in the DV are due to the IV

different types of research methods

• classification and identification

• correlational study

• controlled experiment

• case study

• product, process, system

• literature review

• modelling

• fieldwork

• simulation

controlled experiment

is an investigation of the casual relationship between 2 variables in a controlled environment to determine whether the IV has an influence over the DV

controlled experiment adv and dis adv

adv

• high level of control over variables which help to prevent extraneous and cofounding variables

• follow strictly controlled procedure therefore can be repeated to check results

dis adv

• usually conducted in a laboratory and under strict procedure which can not reflect real life situations and may affect participants responses

• under experimenter manipulation which can increase possibility of researcher error

case study

is an in depth investigation of an individual, group or particular phenomenon that contains a real or hypothetical situation

case study adv and dis adv

adv

• contain highly detailed, rich information about a certain phenomena which can provide ideas for future hypothesis and studies

dis adv

• subject to research bias

• can be time consuming

• result cannot be generalised

correlational study

a non-experimental study that researches observe and measure whether there is a relationship between 2 variables without the use of control or manipulation

correlational study adv and dis adv

adv

• no manipulation of variables required

• provide information about relationships and associations between variables

• provide information on future hypothesis and research, and bias’s for results of experiment

dis adv

• cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect

• can be subject to extraneous variables

classification and identification

• classification - is the arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into a manageable set

• identification - the process of recognising whether phenomena belongs to a particular set or possibly being part of a new unique set

classification and identification adv and dis adv

adv

• helps to simplify, explain and describe complex phenomena

• allows the development of theories and hypothesis about phenomena

dis adv

• can over simply reality

• labels and language can be inaccurate and form bias

fieldwork

is any research that involve observation and interaction with people and environments in real world situation, outside of the laboratory

fieldwork adv and dis adv

adv

• provides rich, detailed data

• can be conducted over long periods of time and discover information that may not be immediately obvious to the researcher

dis adv

• can be time consuming

• due to lengthy process it can be difficult to replicate

• difficult to control environment and extraneous variables as the researcher has little manipulation

literature review

is the process of analysing and collecting secondary data that is related to scientific findings and/or viewpoints which is used to help with background information, answer questions and explain events.

literature review adv and dis adv

adv

• provides background information on specific phenomena which can help create future hypothesis and studies

• may uncover patterns of knowledge or gaps of knowledge

dis adv

• may be time consuming

• difficult to conduct is there is little research available

modelling

is the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, or conceptual model that helps to represent a system involving concepts that help people to know, understand and simulate a system.

modelling adv and dis adv

adv

• physical models allow for researchers to know, understand and problem solve

• conceptual models allow for researchers to explain and simplify phenomena

dis adv

• they may over-simplify or inaccurately represent reality

product, process or system development

is a type of investigation where a process, product or system is designed to meet human need which may possibly involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge

product, process or system development adv an dis adv

adv

• creates products, processes or systems that meet human need

dis adv

• can be expensive and time consuming

simulation

a process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system.

simulation adv and dis adv

adv

• provide an insight to potential circumstances and events

• allows researchers to see events that might be too time consuming, dangerous or impractical to see in reality

dia adv

• can be time consuming and expensive

• subjective to programming and human error therefore it may not always be an accurate reflection of reality

experimental group

is a group that is exposed to the manipulated independent variable

controlled group

is a group that is not exposed to the manipulated independent variable in order to provide a baseline for comparison

what is an investigation design

it is a framework that determines how participants will experience the experimental and controlled group

what are the types of investigation designs

• within-subject design - experimental design where participants experience every experimental condition and compare their person results to themself

• between-subject design - experimental design where participants are divided into different groups and experience only 1 experimental condition

• mixed design - experimental design that combines elements of both a within and between subject design

within subject design strengths and weaknesses

strength

• fewer participants needed

• no extraneous variables such as participant variables will affect participants results and increase validity

weaknesses

• more time consuming as both conditions cannot be measured at the same time

• extraneous variables of prior knowledge can affect behaviour while completing experimental conditions multiple times

between subject design strengths and weaknesses

strengths

• most time efficient as both groups can be measured at the same time with no pre testing required

• extraneous variable of prior knowledge is not present therefore results are less likely to be influenced

weaknesses

• less control of extraneous variable of participants variables between groups and decrease validity

• more participants needed

mixed subject design strengths and weaknesses

strengths

• testing the effect of multiple IV on the DV in one investigation which can be time and cost effective

weaknesses

• less control over extraneous variables of participant variables (differences between groups) and participant prior knowledge (practise behaviour / change behaviour to suit testing conditions) which can influence results of DV and cause the experiment to becomes less valid

generalisability

refers to the extent to which finding can be applied to other settings / situations

types of sampling

• convenience - refers to the availability and proximity of individuals to the researcher, therefore less of an equal chance to be chose among the population

• random - individuals within the population have an equal chance to be selected to participate in the experiment

• stratified - refers to dividing individuals into subgroups based off of shared characteristics

convenience sampling adv and dis adv

adv

• easy to implement and easy to collect data due to close proximity of participants

• fast data to collect due to having no rules or demographics

dis adv

• will not be representative of population

• may be subjective in the way the researcher chooses participants as well as the conclusion that is found from findings

random sampling adv and dis adv

adv

• simple in regards to dividing population into sample sizes

• equality - as each participant has an equal chance of being selected into a sample group

weaknesses

• time consuming having to sort large portions of the population into sample sizes

stratified sampling adv and dis adv

adv

• diverse range of data due to multiple subgroup within sample size

• lower sample bias as participants in each group are more likely to share the same opinion and form a range of opinions due to division of subgroups

dis adv

• time consuming having to have higher planning in order to divide sample into subgroups as they must be accurate and logical in order for study to be free of bias

types of extraneous and cofounding variables

SOPPEND

• situational variables - environmental factors can unintentionally influence / affect results of the study

• order effect - when participants responses to various conditions are effect by the order in which conditions they were exposed to

• participant related variables - the variables and differences of participants background that may affect the results of a study even though they are not the focus of the experiment

• placebo effect - is when an individuals mental or physical health has seemed to improve after taking a placebo treatment

• experimenter effect - when participants are consciously or unconsciously altering their behaviour to meet the expectation of the experimenter which can affect results of a study

• non-standard instructions and procedures - when instructions are given differently compared to another group which may influence the way participants behaviour in the experiment

• demand characteristics - cues that may indicate the objective of the study to a participant which may cause them to alter their behaviour based on what they believe the experiments aim is and decrease validity of results

ways to prevent extraneous and cofounding variables

• large sample size to be more representative of population and have a diverse range of data as well as to minimise effect of outliers to results

• choosing the correct experimental design choice which can help avoid participation related variables

• counter balancing - used to help reduce order effect with having half of a sample size complete the experimental conditions first then the controlled condition, whilst the other half does the opposite so results can be compared and tested equally

• single blind procedures - participant not knowing whether they are in the controlled or experimental condition (experimenter knows). to help reduce participant expectation as well as placebo effect

• double blind procedures - both participant and experimenter does not know what condition the participate is in to reduce expectations from both individuals

• controlled variables - experimenter holding variables constant and under control so their impact is systematically minimised and accounted for

• standardised procedures and instructions - ensures participants in each group receive the same instructions and procedure to ensure behaviour is similar and reduce effect of non- standardised instructions and procedures

accuracy

refers to how close data values are to their true value

true value

refers to the value of data if it was to be measures perfectly

precision

refers to how close data values are to one another

systematic errors

is an error that causes the results to differ from its true value consistently by the same amount each time

how do systematic errors occur

• observational / researcher error

• incorrect measurement calibration

• environmental factors

random erros

an error that produces an unexpected variation in meausrements that result a spread of data values to form

how to random errors occur and become reduced

occur

• poorly controlled or varying measurement tools

• imperfect or faulty measurement tools

• difference between participants and environmental differences

reduced by

• repeated / conducting multiple experiments

• increasing size of sample groups

• refining measuring tools

what do systematic and random errors effect

• systematic errors → affect accuracy

• random errors → affect precision

repeatability and reproducibility

• repeatability - the ability for an experiment to be able to be conducted multiple times and obtain the same/ similar results when being tested in the same condition

• reproducibility - the ability for an experiment to be conducted and obtain the same / similar results when being tested in different conditions

validity

refers to how accurate an investigation investigates what it intends to

internal validity

refers to the extent in which an investigation truely measures or investigates what it claims to.

how to achieve internal validity

adequate:

• measurement tools and procedure

• experimental designs

• sampling and allocation processes

and whether the IV truely affecting the DV

external validity

refers to the extent in which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings.

to how improve external validity

• using sampling procedures that create a more representative sample

• broad inclusion criteria

• larger sample sizes, which allow for sample groups to be more representative of a population

ethical CONCEPTS

BRINJ

• beneficence - committing to maximising benefits and minimise risk and/or harm

• respect - considering the value of living things , giving due regard, and considering the capacity for living things to make their own decision

• integrity - committing to searching for knowledge and understanding, and reporting honest sources and results of information

• non- maleficence - refers to avoiding harm at all costs

• justice - fairly considering that there is no unfair burden / treatment on particular groups and each person has access to benefits

ethical GUIDELINES

• confidentiality - participants remain anonymous and personal information is kept private, protected and secured throughout the study

• informed consent procedures - before a study begins participants agree to participate after receiving all details about the study such as the purpose, aim and potential risks

• deception - withholding the true nature of the study as knowledge of the true nature may influence behaviour and overall validity of the study

• debriefing - participants are informed on the true aims, results and conclusion of the study after it has been conducted as well as to answer any questions, for clarification, and to explain the use of deception if used to ensure their is no lasting harm after the experiment

• voluntary participation - participants are personally willing to be involved in the study without suffering pressure or consequences from others

• withdrawal rights - participants are able to freely discontinue from the study at any given point without suffering from penalty/consequence