Animal Behavior Exam 3-Ashton Sanchez

Can you explain and give an example for each of the anti-predator behaviors we discussed in class?

Common anti-predator behaviors include crypsis (e.g., a moth camouflaging on bark), aposematism (e.g., a poison dart frog's bright colors), and mimicry (e.g., a hoverfly mimicking a wasp).

Why is the development of a search image by a predator dangerous for prey? What can prey do to prevent this?

A search image is dangerous for prey because it makes them easier for predators to detect, and prey can prevent this through polymorphism or being rare.

In general, why are anti-predator behaviors adaptive?

Anti-predator behaviors are adaptive because they increase an individual's survival and reproductive success.

What does the selfish herd hypothesis tell us about anti-predator behaviors of grouped animals?

The selfish herd hypothesis states that animals in a group position themselves to use others as shields against predators.

What does mathematical modeling tell us about adaptive changes in behavior that predators have to make to find prey and prey have to make avoid being eaten?

Mathematical modeling tells us that predator and prey behaviors are in an evolutionary arms race, each adaptively changing to outcompete the other.

What type of stimuli can be used to create a startle effect?

Startle effects can be created using sudden visual stimuli (eyespots), sounds, or movements.

Why will the relationship between predator and prey likely never end?

The predator-prey relationship will likely never end due to the Red Queen Effect, where each species must constantly adapt just to survive the other.

Why is the Patch Model often an over-estimation of an animal’s foraging behaviors?

The Patch Model is often an over-estimation because it assumes perfect information and ignores real-world constraints like predation risk and competition.

Based on the Patch Model, how does the search time and predicted number of food items change as travel time increases or decreases?

As travel time increases, an animal should stay longer in a patch and leave more food items; as travel time decreases, it should leave sooner and leave fewer items.

What were the main results and conclusions of the experiment involving stickleback fish?

The stickleback fish experiment showed that foraging involves a trade-off, as the fish shifted to safer areas when a predator was present, sacrificing energy gain for safety. (kingfisher)

What factor(s) can increase or decrease the profitability of prey?

Prey profitability increases with higher energy content or lower handling time and decreases with lower energy or higher handling time.

What does a Gains curve represent?

A Gains curve represents the cumulative energy gained over time spent in a patch, typically showing a diminishing returns shape.

Under what conditions might an animal engage in more risky behaviors when foraging?

An animal engages in riskier foraging when starved, when food is highly valuable, or when predator density is low.

What assumptions are typically made when utilizing the Patch Model?

The Patch Model assumes patches are identical, travel time is constant, and foragers are perfect optimizers with complete information.

How does future discounting affect an animal’s foraging behaviors?

Future discounting causes an animal to choose a smaller, immediate reward over a larger, delayed one.

Describe at least two factors that can influence an animal’s foraging behavior.

Foraging behavior is influenced by predation risk and the animal's internal state, like hunger level.

In what ways can an animal avoid territorial disputes?

Animals avoid territorial disputes through communication (songs, scents) and spatial avoidance of neighbors.

How does an animal’s behavior change as a result of the Dear Enemy Effect?

The Dear Enemy Effect causes an animal to be less aggressive toward a familiar neighbor than a stranger.

What options do animals have if they do not secure the most ideal habitat location?

Animals that don't secure ideal habitat can become floaters, settle for poorer habitat, or challenge the current owner.

Under what conditions might you expect an animal to engage in physical fighting as opposed to a lesser form of aggression?

An animal engages in physical fighting when the benefits of winning a high-value resource outweigh the costs of injury.

Can you identify what dispersal behavior males and females are expected to exhibit under the First Come First Served and Oedipus hypotheses?

Under the First Come First Served hypothesis, the sex that defends resources disperses (often males); under the Oedipus hypothesis, the sex that avoids inbreeding disperses (males in mammals, females in birds).

What does the Competition for mates and resources model predict related to the dispersal behaviors of males and females?

The Competition for mates and resources model predicts the sex facing the most intense local competition (often males) will disperse more.

How does the payoff asymmetry concept predict the amount of effort an animal might display to secure a habitat?

Payoff asymmetry predicts an animal will display more effort to secure a habitat it values more highly, like its established territory.

What factors are important for an animal when deciding on a habitat?

Important habitat factors include food, predators, nesting sites, and competitors.

How could you behaviorally identify that an animal is using piloting as a form of navigation?

An animal using piloting will move sequentially between familiar landmarks and become disoriented if they are moved.

What did Tinbergen’s 1930s study in Digger wasps, and a more recent paper in the Sahara Desert ant reveal about an important sensory systems that aid an animal’s navigation?

Tinbergen's wasp and Sahara ant studies revealed that vision is critical for navigation using landmarks and path integration.

For what purpose does the thalamofugal pathway serve?

The thalamofugal pathway is a neural pathway in birds involved in magnetic compass orientation.

What is cognitive mapping and why was it controversial when first proposed?

Cognitive mapping is a mental representation of spatial relationships allowing for shortcuts; it was controversial as it implied high cognitive ability in animals.

What hormone is hypothesized to play a role in navigation in salmon?

Thyroxine is the hormone hypothesized to play a role in salmon navigation.

How do single and serial snap-shot memory work? For what circumstances might an animal be expected to use it?

Single snapshot memory is matching one view of a goal; serial snapshot is recalling a sequence of views; they are used for piloting on familiar routes.

What voltages of electricity are typically used by animals for navigational purposes?

Animals use very low voltages, from millivolts to a few volts, for electrolocation.

In what ways (more than one) can animals detect magnetism?

Animals detect magnetism using magnetite crystals in their bodies or a light-dependent radical pair mechanism in their eyes.

What is the difference between piloting, compass orientation, and true navigation?

Piloting uses landmarks, compass orientation uses a directional bearing, and true navigation requires a map sense to determine location.

What is the difference between active and passive electrolocation?

Active electrolocation involves generating your own electric field, while passive involves detecting others' bioelectric fields.

Under what conditions would an animal exhibit jamming avoidance behaviors?

Jamming avoidance occurs when wave-type electric fish with similar frequencies shift their signal to avoid interference.

For salmon, what evidence supports olfaction as a significant sensory system important for navigation?

Salmon homing evidence shows they imprint on and return to the unique odor of their natal stream.

How do differences in parental effort predict the degree of sexual selection?

The sex with lower parental effort (usually males) experiences stronger sexual selection and greater competition for mates.

When it comes to mating, what are the sources of conflict between males and females? (Know them all)

Sources of conflict are mating rate (how many mates), parental care (who provides it), and certainty of parentage.

What factors can influence the sex ratio of offspring?

Offspring sex ratio can be influenced by local resource/mate competition or maternal condition.

For what reason(s) might forced copulations exist?

Forced copulations exist as a male strategy when they cannot secure mates through courtship and the benefits outweigh the costs.

What is the difference between intra- and inter-sexual competition? Can you give some examples of each (outside of ones discussed in class?

Intra-sexual competition is within a sex (e.g., male deer locking antlers), while inter-sexual is between sexes (e.g., a female bird choosing a mate based on his song).

In the context of sexual selection, why are males with a handicap perceived to have a benefit?

Males with a handicap are perceived as better because the trait is an honest signal of genetic quality, as only a high-quality male can survive with it.

Why is sperm competition considered a form of intra-sexual competition? How does it work? Which sex can display it?

Sperm competition is intra-sexual competition between males' sperm within a female; it works through mechanisms like increased sperm numbers or disabling rival sperm.

Why aren’t skewed male:female ratios not stable within a population long term?

Skewed sex ratios are unstable due to frequency-dependent selection, which favors parents who produce the rarer sex until a 1:1 ratio is restored.