Baylor Intro to Neuroscience -- Final Exam

neuroscience learns about the ------ from examining the -----

normal; abnormal

system of the body that releases substances into the body (usually through the bloodstream)

endocrine system

system of the body that releases substances out of the body (tears, sweat, etc.)

exocrine system

modify growth and development of tissue

organizing effects

modify functioning of existing structures

activating effects

the exocrine system releases things through

ducts

the target tissue of the exocrine system

mostly surfaces of the body

examples of the exocrine system

tears and sweat

where does the endocrine system release to?

into the bloodstream

what is the target tissue of the endocrine system?

skin, organs, other endocrine structures

examples of the endocrine system

pituitary, thyroid, testes, ovaries

duration of effects of hormones

long-lasting

duration of effects of neurotransmitters

short action

the action of hormones

elicit long-term readiness to respond

the action of neurotransmitters

elicit short-term reaction to single stimulus

where are neurotransmitters released?

into the synapse

------ are often released far from target tissue

hormones

----- are released directly at target tissue

neurotransmitters

---- are released in relatively large amounts

hormones

----- are released in minute amounts

neurotransmitters

three types of hormones

1. (simple) amino acid derivatives

2. peptides/proteins

3. steroid hormones

epinephrine (adrenaline) is an example of

a simple/amino acid derivative (type of hormone)

amino acid chains are an example of

peptides/proteins (type of hormone)

hormones that are based on the cholesterol molecule

steroid hormones

type of hormone that generally alter ionic membrane permeability

peptides/proteins

type of hormone that enters into the cell, influences the genetic expression within the nucleus

steroid hormones

type of hormone that elicits temporary changes

peptides/proteins

type of hormone that elicits permanent changes

steroid hormones

the two gonadal hormones

androgens and estrogens

hormones that are primarily produced by gonads

gonadal hormones

all gonadal hormones also synthesized and released (in small amounts) by ---

the adrenal cortex

where is the adrenal cortex located?

on top of the kidney

estrogen is not ---- but ------------

one thing; a category of things

androgens are primarily released by

testes

the most common androgen is

testosterone

androgens are usually in higher concentrations in

males

estrogens are primarily released by

ovaries

the most common estrogen is

estradiol

estrogens are usually in higher concentrations in

females

learning

the brain's ability to change in response to experience

memory

the brain's ability to store and access the learned effects of experiences

amnesia

any pathological loss of memory

lobectomy

a procedure in which a lobe, or a major part of one, is removed from the brain

lobotomy

a procedure in which a lobe, or a major part of one, is separated from the rest of the brain by a large cut but is not removed

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events or information learned before the amnesia-inducing brain injury

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events occurring after the amnesia-inducing brain injury

bilateral medial temporal lobectomy

the removal of the medial portions of both temporal lobes, including most of the hippocampus, amygdala, and adjacent cortex

short-term memory

storage of information for brief periods of time while a person attends to it

long-term memory

memory for experiences that endures after the experiences are no longer the focus of attention

digit span

the longest sequence of random digits that can be repeated correctly 50 percent of the time -- most people have a ------- of 7

incomplete-pictures test

a nonsensorimotor test of memory that employs five sets of fragmented drawings

mnemonic

memory related

remote memory

memory for experiences in the distant past

memory consolidation

the translation of short-term memories into long-term memories

explicit memories

conscious memories

implicit memories

memories that are expressed by improved performance without conscious recall or recognition

medial temporal lobe amnesia

amnesia associated with bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes; its major features are anterograde and retrograde amnesia for explicit memories, with preserved intellectual functioning

repetition priming tests

tests of implicit memory; in one example, a list of words is presented, then fragments of the original words are presented and the subject is asked to complete them

semantic memories

explicit memories for general facts or information

episodic memories

explicit memories for the particular events (episodes) of one's life

autobiographical memory

episodic memory is also called

global cerebral ischemia

an interruption of blood supply to the entire brain

transient global amnesia

a sudden onset of severe anterograde amnesia and moderate retrograde amnesia for explicit episodic memory that is transient -- typically lasting only between 4 to 6 hours

Korsakoff's syndrome

a neuropsychological disorder that is common in alcoholics and whose primary symptoms include memory loss, sensory and motor dysfunction, and, in its advanced stages, severe dementia

mediodorsal nuclei

the thalamic relay nuclei of the olfactory system

medial diencephalic amnesia

amnesia that is associated with damage to the medial diencephalon (e.g. Korsakoff's amnesia)

basal forebrain

a midline area of the forebrain, which is located just in front of and above the hypothalamus and is the brain's main source of acetylcholine

islands of memory

surviving memories for isolated events that occurred during periods for which other memories have been wiped out

reverberating

circulating

electroconvulsive shock (ECS)

an intense, brief, diffuse, seizure-inducing current administered to the brain via large electrodes attached to the scalp

standard consolidation theory (or dual-trace theory)

the theory that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system. has two names

reconsolidation

the theory that each time a memory is retrieved from long-term storage, it is temporarily held in a labile (changeable or unstable) state in short-term memory, where it is susceptible to post traumatic amnesia. this susceptibility remains until it is consolidated again

delayed non matching-to-sample test

a test in which the subject is presented with an unfamiliar sample object and then, after a delay, is presented with a choice between the sample object and an unfamiliar object, where the correct choice is the unfamiliar object

Mumby box

an apparatus that is used in the rat version of the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test

medial temporal cortex

Morris water maze test

a widely used test of spatial memory in which rats must learn to swim directly to a platform hidden just beneath the surface of a circular pool of murky water

radial arm maze test

a widely used test of rats' spatial ability in which the same arms are baited on each trial, and the rats must learn to visit only the baited arms once per trial

reference memory

memory for the general principles and skills that are required to perform a task

working memory

temporary memory that is necessary for the successful performance of a task on which on his currently working

place cells

neurons that respond only when the subject is in specific locations

entorhinal cortex

an area of the medial temporal cortex that is a major source of neural signals to the hippocampus

grid cells

entorhinal neurons that each have an extensive array of evenly spaced place fields, producing a pattern reminiscent of graph paper

head-direction cells

border cells

fire when the subject is near the borders of its immediate environment

Jennifer Aniston neurons

neurons, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ides or concepts rather than to particulars. also known as concept cells

concept cells

cells, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ideas or concepts rather than to particulars. also known as Jennifer Aniston cells

engram cells

neurons that maintain an engram

inferotemporal cortex

the cortex of the inferior temporal lobe, in which is located an area of secondary visual cortex

cerebellum

a mesencephalic structure that is thought to participate in the storage of memories of learned sensorimotor skills

striatum (pg 293)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

the enduring facilitation of synaptic transmission that occurs following activation of synapses by high-intensity, high-frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons

Hebb's postulate for learning

NMDA receptor

glutamate receptors that play key roles in the development of stroke-induced brain damage and long-term potentiation at glutaminergic synapses

glutamate

NMDA is a receptor for

dendritic spines

tiny protrusions of various shapes that are located on the surfaces of many dendrites

transcription factors

intracellular proteins that bind to DNA and influence the operation of particular genes

long-term depression (LTD)

a long-lasting decrease in synaptic efficacy that occurs in response to prolonged low-frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons

metaplasticity

the modulation of long-term potentiation (LTP) and/or long-term depression (LTD) induction by prior synaptic activity

infantile amnesia

we remember virtually noting of the events of our infancy

nootropics (smart drugs)

drugs that purportedly improve memory