children & adolescents placed at risk: midterm

at-risk

indicates a set of presumed cause–effect dynamics that place an individual, child, or adolescent in danger of future negative outcomes. designates a situation that is not necessarily current (although we sometimes use the term in that sense too) but that can be anticipated in the absence of intervention.

• education (academic achievement)

• psychology (mental health)

• economy (job trajectory)

• medical (access to healthcare)

what are the four main areas of at-risk factors?

minimal risk → remote risk → high risk → imminent risk → at-risk activity

what is the order of the at-risk continuum?

minimal risk

• few psychosocial stressors

• attend well-funded schools

• loving caring relationships

• higher socioeconomic status

remote risk

• low socioeconomic status

• poor economic opportunity

• poor access to good education

• membership in a racial/ethnic minority group (e.g., racial oppression, economic marginalization, racism)

• multiplicative → psychosocial stressors and attends a low-performing school.

high risk

• individuals or families show multiple factors that make negative outcomes (like abuse, neglect, or delinquency) likely, but these outcomes have not yet occurred.

• development of negative attitudes and emotions

• aggression, conduct disorder, impulsivity, anxiety

• depression, bipolar

• deficits in social skills

• signal internalization of problems

• sets the stage for gateway behaviors

imminent risk

the danger of harm or crisis is immediate or about to happen, requiring urgent intervention to prevent injury or serious consequences.

gateway behaviors:

• mildly or moderately distressing behaviors, disruptive behaviors

• progress to more deviant behaviors

• aggression is a gateway to criminal behavior

at-risk activity

• individual is engaged in the behavior that defines “at risk”

• increase in maladaptive behaviors

it overgeneralizes youth, focuses on deficits, treats risk as fixed, stigmatizes individuals, ignores systemic factors like poverty or racism, and lacks cultural relevance.

why is the at-risk continuum flawed?

• virtual explosion in electronic media, computer, mobile devices

• influence of media on behavior

• cyber abuse

what are examples of cyber technology?

• children and adolescents of color

• lgbtqia+ youth

• youth with disabilities

• immigrant youth

what are examples of vulnerable and underserved youth?

the soil (at-risk tree)

represents the community, culture, and living conditions that either nourish or harm development.

aspects of the environment:

• socioeconomic status

• political realities

• cultural climate

social changes:

• urbanization and the feminization of poverty

• violence and terrorism

• changes in technology

roots (at-risk tree)

• these are the deep issues that feed risk, such as poverty, family instability, abuse, neglect, or discrimination. they’re often hidden but strongly affect a child’s growth and behavior.

• family: taproot (central root)

• school: major root

• peer groups: major root

social cognitive theory

a psychological framework suggesting that people learn behaviors through a dynamic interplay of observational learning, environmental factors, and cognitive processes like thinking and self-belief.

vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

children learn through social interaction, language, and cultural tools. development happens with guidance (scaffolding) within the zone of proximal development (zpd) — the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.

the trunk (at-risk tree)

• symbolizes the individual traits and coping abilities that form as the child grows. this includes self-esteem, problem-solving skills, and emotional regulation.

• young people’s strengths and weaknesses, talents and disabilities, and personal risk and protective factors.

• these behaviors, attitudes, and skills are also conduits to the branches

the branches (at-risk tree)

• the visible behaviors we see, like acting out, skipping school, substance use, or withdrawal. they’re the outward results of what’s happening below the surface.

• children and youths’ adaptation to society.

• most adolescents have adapted in a healthy way.

• school dropout, substance abuse, risky sexual behaviors, delinquency and violence, and suicide.

foliage, fruit, and flowers

• _______ reflects the child’s daily behaviors and expressions — the things we can see, such as participation, attitude, and emotional responses. _______ symbolizes the results of their development, including achievements like good grades, strong relationships, or, if conditions are unhealthy, negative outcomes such as poor performance or behavioral issues. ____ stand for the child’s potential, creativity, and unique talents that can blossom when they are given proper care, support, and encouragement.

the gardener (at-risk tree)

• counselor

• social worker

• juvenile justice personnel

• community member

• teacher

• psychologist

• me

individual (the ecological model)

personal traits like age, gender, personality, and skills.

microsystem (the ecological model)

e.g., family, school, friends, church

mesosystem relationships (the ecological model)

among microsystems (e.g., child’s parent and teacher, child’s school and the surrounding neighborhood)

exosystem (the ecological model)

indirect influences (e.g., parent’s job, public policy, political structures, media).

macrosystem (the ecological model)

e.g., poverty, social norms, gender roles, cultural values

microsystem (brofenbrenner)

consists of the people with whom an individual comes into direct contact with.

mesosystem (bronfenbrenner)

refers to the embedded interconnections between the different microsystems.

exosystem (brofenbrenner)

indirect environments that still influence the child (e.g., a parent’s workplace, neighborhood safety, or access to community resources).

macrosystem (brofenbrenner)

the larger cultural and societal context, including values, laws, customs, and social norms that shape all other systems.

chronosystem (brofenbrenner)

• the socio-historical circumstances and transitions that occur during the course of the individual’s life over time

• interconnection and inter action among individuals the different levels of their environments.

e.g., a child experiencing the birth of a new sibling, parental divorce and remarriage, moving to a new state

• development occurs within multiple environments — from family and school to culture and society.

• individuals and environments influence each other.

• relationships across systems are dynamic and interconnected.

• context matters — behavior and growth depend on social, cultural, and historical settings.

• development is a lifelong process that continues as people and environments change.

what are some assumptions of the ecological model?

poverty

• a condition in which people lack the financial resources to meet basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing, healthcare, and education.

• highly correlated with school failure & delinquency.

• among all children under age 18 in the united states, 16.1 % live in poverty (u.s. census, 2022).

• rural poverty rates (13.6%) remain higher than those of urban (10%) (usda, 2023).

working poor

• both parents work to keep family out of poverty

• child’s development through parental attitude, disposition, and behavior.

• financial strain

• decrease in mental health

• parental depression

• less positive parenting practices

vulnerable and underserved: great recession (2008–2010) and beyond

• poverty rose among all racial and ethnic groups.

• workers of color were overrepresented in low-skilled and low-wage jobs.

• the recession caused a steep increase in long-term unemployment.

• families of color experienced disproportionate income and job losses due to structural economic changes.

• manufacturing jobs moved to outlying areas and many were outsourced to countries like china.

• the impact of covid-19 later deepened existing inequalities, hitting these communities hardest.

young, single-mother families

• the economic situation of families headed by single mothers has worsened over the past 25 years (economic policy institute, 2015a).

• a mother’s marital status strongly affects the economic security and stability of her children.

• the covid-19 pandemic led many women, especially single mothers, to leave the workforce due to childcare demands and job instability.

income gap and related social effects

• the gap between the rich and poor continues to grow — the top 1% of americans control about 40% of the nation’s wealth.

• schools now focus on the opportunity gap, emphasizing unequal access to resources rather than just achievement differences.

• ennui/anomie describes feelings of boredom, disconnection, and lack of purpose; it can affect children from all backgrounds and is linked to alienation and aimlessness.

• affluence, or excessive material wealth, can also create risk factors — children may have many possessions but lack empathy, direction, and meaningful connections.

homeless families

• the national rate has increased to 22.7 per 10,000 people (department of housing and urban development, 2024).

• certain regions of the country have seen sharper increases than others.

• major causes include a lack of affordable housing and rising living costs.

• the current political climate has influenced housing policies and resource distribution, affecting support for vulnerable families.

empowerment

marginalized (a) become aware of the power dynamics at work in their life context, (b) develop the skills and capacity for gaining some reasonable control over their lives, (c) which they exercise, (d) without infringing on the rights of others, and (e) which coincides with actively supporting the empowerment of others in their community.

critical consciousness (paulo freire, 1970s–80s)

focuses on developing critical awareness of social inequities and power differences while building skills (like literacy). emphasizes agency, autonomy, and the ability to make choices and take action against injustice.

critical consciousness in adolescence

adolescents reflect on how community, peers, and school shape behavior. involves power analysis and critical self-reflection, recognizing social pressures, and developing skills for positive action (agency and action).

skill development

• focuses on teaching children effective social and cognitive-behavioral skills to help them cope with challenges.

• encourages strong learning strategies that promote problem-solving, emotional regulation, and adaptability.

• supports overall intellectual and personal growth, preparing children for success in school and life.

reciprocal causation

• personal, behavioral, and environmental influences all interact with each other.

• personal (self-efficacy, goals, values, perceptions), behavioral (actions, choices, reactions), and environmental (conditions, stimuli, outcomes) factors continuously affect one another.

live models

• real people we interact with, such as family, friends, teachers, and peers.

• they demonstrate behaviors, skills, and attitudes that we can observe, imitate, and learn from in everyday life.

• important for teaching social skills, coping strategies, and problem-solving through direct interaction.

symbolic models

• representations of behavior seen in media such as tv, movies, cartoons, books, or online content.

• people learn by observing these behaviors, even without direct interaction.

• transmit information by showing how to perform tasks or behave in certain situations.

• they prompt others to act, encouraging imitation or practice of observed behaviors.

• they can strengthen or weaken restraints on behavior, influencing what is considered acceptable or inappropriate.

• help individuals develop new behaviors, including academic skills, aggression management, and interpersonal or social skills.

what are the effects of models?

• academic skills (learning how to approach tasks)

• aggression (observing aggressive models)

• interpersonal behaviors (concern for others, generosity, altruism)

what are three behaviors learned through modeling?

• attention: focus on key features

• retention: remember with images or steps.

• production: mentally represent and reproduce

• motivation: act when desired outcomes or reinforcement are expected.

• all four are needed for effective modeling.

what four ways do we learn from models?

self-regulation

• extent to which and individual sets standards and goals

• monitor and evaluate our own cognitive process and behaviors (sense of personal agency)

• self-imposed consequences for success and failures

elements of self-regulation

extent to which an individual sets standards and goals—typically personal standards:

• self-observation: observing oneself in action

• self-evaluation: monitor and evaluate our own cognitive process and behaviors

• self-reaction: self-imposed consequences for success and failures

• self-reflection: examine goals, past success, and failures

normal crises

• all families experience normal developmental crises

• profound difficulty between the stages leads to dysfunction

• view the family as a system

homeostasis in a family

the family’s tendency to maintain balance and stability by creating roles and patterns, even if unhealthy. e.g., with a child’s addiction, one child may be the scapegoat, a parent the enabler, and siblings the distractor or overly responsible.

closed family system

• rigid pattern of maintaining homeostasis

• isolated from the environment

• less receptive to external stimuli

• unresponsive to change

• increasing disorder

detachment

• individual members function separately and autonomously with little family interdependence.

• each member is isolated within the system

• high level of stress to activate support

emotional needs are not met:

• individuals do not know how to meet the emotional needs of others.

enmeshment

• intensity and closeness in family interactions

• members are overly involved and overly concerned with each other’s lives.

• distorted sense of involvement, attachment, and belonging.

• fail to develop a secure sense of individuality, separateness, and autonomy.

encounters a stressful situation:

• rescuing rather than teaching problem solving

• parental control is ineffective

• isolation from classmates

open family system

• interacts freely with the external environment, allowing input and influence from outside sources.

• shows adaptation and flexibility in response to change.

• maintains stability while adjusting to new circumstances.

• encourages family members to develop separate identities and adapt individually to environmental changes.

cultural variations

• knowledge of cultural background

• enmeshment may be collective sharing and interdependence in families of color.

families of color often rely on a larger social base and extended family support:

• african american families: extended family, friends, church.

• native american families: the extended kinship system, uncles, aunts, cousins, and grandparents, nonblood-related individuals

• american indian groups: even have formal rituals to induct significant individuals into the family system.

• asian american families: close-knit and hierarchical family structures, authority given to father and elders

nurture

• relates to all the ways in which love and emotional support/warmth, is demonstrated towards others and ourselves.

• being responsive

• expressing concern for the child

structure

• extent to which behavioral norms are internalized by children through parental socialization.

• limits

• rules

• guides towards internalizing self-regulatory behavior

authoritative parents

• characterized by parents showing high levels of emotional support with reasonable behavioral restrictions.

• parents have high standards for behavior and allow their children some level of autonomy in decision making.

• most ideal parenting styles in western cultures.

authoritarian parents

• charaterized by parents showing low emotional support and rigid restrictions on behavior.

• parents impose strict guidelines with the context of a loving and supportive parent-child relationships.

• more salient in particular cultures and for children living in certain environments.

permissive parents

• avoids excessive control

• does not enforce obedience to externally defined standards

• lets children regulate their own activity

neglectful parents

• emotionally uninvolved.

• appear to be too busy or self-absorbed to function adequately as parents.

duval & miller (1985) – family life cycle

families move through stages over time (leaving home, marriage, raising children, launching children, aging). each stage brings developmental tasks and adjustments.

attachment theory

early bonds between child and caregiver shape emotional development, relationships, and how people handle transitions across the family life cycle.

resilience

refers to those who demonstrate a good outcome in spite of high risk, sustained competence under stress, and recovery from trauma.

• social environment

• family milieu

• individual characteristics and attitudes

what are three factors that influence resilience?

social environment: school

act as a mediating milieu for children facing risk factors. when family support is weak, teachers, peers, counselors, and psychologists provide support. success in academics, arts, sports, and activities also builds resilience.

social environment: community

community networks (ministers, recreation workers, mentors) provide emotional support, encouragement, and advice. even one caring adult outside the family can strengthen resilience.

individual characteristics and attitudes of resilience

• proactive problem-solving approach to life’s challenges

• optimistic perspective, viewing pain and frustration constructively

• ability to form positive relationships and gain attention from others

• strong faith and vision of a meaningful life

• alertness, autonomy, and curiosity for new experiences

• competence in social, school, and cognitive areas; strong verbal and social skills

• internal locus of control, impulse control, reflectiveness, positive self-regard

• well-developed sense of humor, ability to delay gratification, and future orientation

1. critical school skills

2. concept of self (self-esteem & self-efficacy)

3. connectedness

4. coping ability

5. control

• low-risk youth show strength in the five Cs, while high-risk youth show deficiencies in one or more.

what are the five Cs of competency?

critical school competencies (5 Cs)

include basic academic skills (reading, writing, math), academic survival skills, and social-behavioral skills (attention, following directions, work ethic). often more important than achievement alone; underachievement can pose risk.

concept of self (5 Cs)

includes self-concept (beliefs about who we are, traits, skills, relationships), self-esteem (how much we value ourselves), and self-efficacy (ability to perform specific tasks). self-efficacy affects choice, effort, and persistence and comes from mastery, observation, feedback, and emotions.

connectedness (5 Cs)

involves communication and interpersonal skills, perspective-taking (understanding others’ thoughts and feelings), and solving relationship problems. strong connectedness supports academic success and healthy social adjustment; social deficiencies are linked to at-risk behaviors.

coping ability (5 Cs)

the ability to manage anxiety, stress, and conflict. strong coping skills reduce risk of anxiety, depression, cognitive distortions, negative self-talk, and expecting negative outcomes.

control (5 Cs)

the ability to influence one’s future and make thoughtful decisions. low-risk youth show self-determination, connectedness, and competence; high-risk youth often act impulsively, have poor working memory, rely on external control, and struggle with delaying gratification.

article 1: “minority children and their families: a positive look” (cabrera)

• strong ethnic identity fosters pride, self-worth, and confidence

• family involvement provides support, guidance, and cultural grounding

• community engagement offers connection, resources, and social capital

• these promotive factors help youth cope with discrimination, microaggressions, and systemic challenges

• resilience is developed through navigating adversity with support from family and community

• shifting research focus from deficits to strengths highlights minority youth potential and success

• acknowledging resilience alongside challenges provides a more accurate and respectful understanding of minority communities

• positive representations in research empower youth and families, fostering hope and motivation

article 2: “students at promise and resilient: a historical look at risk" (franklin)

• traditional “at-risk” research often stigmatizes minority youth, focusing on deficits rather than potential

• risk research has medical/pathological origins, categorizing children by sociodemographic traits

• cultural deprivation theory blames minority culture for failure, ignoring school and community roles

• resilience research highlights protective factors: family, community, and school support

• bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory shows multiple systems shape development

• families create learning rituals, set standards, and build positive values

• communities provide encouragement, resources, and social capital

• schools can fail students through systemic bias; culturally aware educators and supportive relationships foster success

• emphasizes shifting focus from deficits to resilience to recognize and support minority youth potential

article 3: “teaching citizens: the role of open classroom climate in fostering critical consciousness among youth” (godfrey & grayman)

• critical consciousness: ability to recognize oppression, reflect critically, feel empowered, and take action

• freire’s model: critical reflection, sociopolitical efficacy, critical action

• open classroom climates (discussion, diverse opinions, problem-posing education) foster civic engagement, empowerment, and participatory skills

• classrooms act as democratic spaces where youth can practice decision-making and collective action

• benefits stronger for minority students, especially regarding school efficacy and empowerment

• must address both community and school inequities to support youth fully

• discussions must go beyond surface-level; depth of content critical for developing true critical reflection

• promotes mental health, occupational success, and civic participation by helping students see agency and understand systemic oppression

• emphasizes youth as active agents capable of shaping their communities and environments

article 4: “weaving cultural relevance and achievement motivation into inclusive classrooms cultures” (kumar, zusho, & bondie)

• culturally responsive and culturally relevant education (crre) integrates students’ cultural backgrounds into learning

• four principles of motivation:

  • meaningfulness: lessons connect to students’ cultural experiences, making learning relevant and engaging

  • competence: belief in one’s ability promotes effort, persistence, mastery strategies, and positive emotions

  • autonomy: students regulate their own goals and actions, supporting intrinsic motivation

  • relatedness: students feel cared for, respected, and part of a supportive learning community

• achievement motivation influenced by culture, identity, relationships, and inclusive practices

• culturally sensitive teachers can increase engagement and efficacy by acknowledging cultural heritage and validating students’ experiences

• meaningful learning reduces cultural cost (psychological burden of irrelevant or exclusionary content)

• competence and identity can coexist; students thrive when cultural identity is affirmed alongside academic expectations

• autonomy is reinforced when students have choice, voice, and ownership over learning

• relatedness strengthens motivation by building trust, respect, and a sense of belonging in the classroom

• emphasizes that motivation is shaped by social context, not just effort or ability