Warfare in British history

What three key factors drive change in warfare across this topic?

Governments and individuals; science, technology and communications; and attitudes in society. (These are the "factors" the exam expects you to use to explain why change happened.)

What is meant by "continuity" in this topic?

When something stays the same over a period of time rather than changing (e.g. armies kept recruiting ordinary civilians across all four periods).

What is a "turning point" in warfare?

A development that causes a major, lasting change in how warfare works (e.g. the introduction of gunpowder weapons).

What is a "war of attrition"?

A strategy of wearing the enemy down by inflicting continuous losses of soldiers and resources until they can no longer fight.

What were the three main parts of a medieval army?

Infantry (foot soldiers), archers, and mounted knights (heavily armoured soldiers on horseback).

How was army command linked to social structure in medieval England?

Wealthy nobles and lords led the army because of their high social rank, not because of military skill or training.

What was a longbow and why was it important?

A tall, powerful bow that could be fired quickly and pierce armour at long range; it made trained archers decisive in battle (e.g. at Agincourt).

What was a schiltron?

A tight, circular formation of Scottish spearmen, used as a defensive "hedgehog" against cavalry charges (used at Falkirk).

Why did gunpowder and cannon matter in the medieval period?

Gunpowder weapons and early cannon began appearing from the 14th century, mainly used in sieges; they slowly changed warfare and reduced the power of castle walls.

Why did the mounted knight decline by c1500?

New weapons like the longbow (and later gunpowder) could kill armoured knights, making expensive heavy cavalry less dominant on the battlefield.

How were soldiers recruited in the medieval feudal army?

Through the feudal system: knights and tenants owed military service to their lord in return for land; later, paid soldiers were also hired under contract.

What training did medieval soldiers receive?

Knights trained in fighting and horsemanship from boyhood, but ordinary foot soldiers and archers had little formal training.

How did war affect medieval civilians?

They had to provide men and money through feudal duties, and armies often plundered (stole food and goods from) villages they passed through.

What happened at the Battle of Falkirk (1298)?

Edward I's English army defeated William Wallace's Scots; English longbowmen broke up the Scottish schiltrons, then cavalry charged in to win.

What roles did William Wallace and Edward I play at Falkirk?

Wallace led the Scots and relied on schiltrons; Edward I commanded the English and combined longbowmen and cavalry to defeat them.

What happened at the Battle of Agincourt (1415)?

Henry V's heavily outnumbered English army beat the French; longbowmen and thick mud trapped the heavily armoured French knights.

What role did Henry V play at Agincourt?

He led the English army in person, chose good defensive ground, and kept his outnumbered, tired troops disciplined and motivated.

What was a musketeer?

A foot soldier armed with a musket (an early firearm); muskets gradually replaced bows during this period.

What was a pikeman?

A foot soldier armed with a very long spear (pike), used to protect musketeers from cavalry charges while they reloaded.

What was a dragoon?

A soldier who rode a horse to the battlefield but then dismounted to fight on foot — a flexible "mounted infantry".

What is a standing army?

A permanent, professional army kept and paid even in peacetime; it began to develop in Britain in this period, especially after 1660.

How did weaponry change in the early modern period?

New, more reliable muskets and pistols (flintlock replacing matchlock) made firearms central to warfare.

What was the New Model Army (1645)?

Parliament's full-time, professionally organised and disciplined army in the Civil War; soldiers were properly trained and paid, and officers were promoted on ability rather than birth.

How were soldiers recruited in the early modern period?

Through local militias and impressment (forcing men to serve) as well as volunteers; the New Model Army was a more organised form of recruitment.

What is requisitioning?

When an army takes food, horses and supplies from civilians, and forces people to house ("billet") soldiers in their homes.

What happened at the Battle of Naseby (1645)?

Parliament's New Model Army decisively defeated the Royalists; it was a turning point that effectively won the Civil War for Parliament.

What role did Oliver Cromwell play at Naseby?

He commanded the Parliamentarian cavalry and kept them disciplined — they regrouped to attack again instead of chasing fleeing enemies, which won the battle.

Why did cavalry decline in the 18th and 19th centuries?

More accurate and powerful firearms and artillery made cavalry charges increasingly costly and less effective.

How did weaponry change in the 18th and 19th centuries?

Rifles and bullets became more accurate and longer-ranged, and powerful field guns and heavy artillery were developed.

How did industrialisation change warfare in this period?

Steam-powered transport (railways and steamships) moved troops and supplies quickly, and factories mass-produced weapons in huge, standardised quantities.

What were Cardwell's army reforms (1870s)?

Reforms that ended the buying of officer commissions, shortened service terms, and linked regiments to local areas — making the army more professional.

How did newspapers and photography affect attitudes to war?

War correspondents and photographs showed the public the realities of war for the first time, increasing concern about how soldiers were treated.

Which wars showed the impact of war reporting in this period?

The Crimean War (1853–56) and the Boer War (1899–1902), where reporting exposed poor conditions and military failures.

What happened at the Battle of Waterloo (1815)?

Wellington's British-led army, with Prussian support, defeated Napoleon; Wellington's troops held a defensive ridge until the Prussians arrived.

What role did the Duke of Wellington play at Waterloo?

He commanded the allied army and used careful defensive tactics, holding his position under heavy attack until reinforcements turned the battle.

What happened at the Battle of Balaclava (1854)?

A Crimean War battle remembered for the "Charge of the Light Brigade", in which confused orders sent British cavalry on a disastrous charge into Russian guns.

What role did Lord Raglan play at Balaclava?

He was the British commander whose vague, poorly communicated order led to the Light Brigade charging the wrong position.

What is a logistics corps?

A specialised army unit that organises supplies, transport, fuel and food — essential to keeping modern armies fighting.

What do specialised bomb disposal units do?

They safely deal with unexploded bombs and devices — a modern unit reflecting new threats such as landmines and IEDs.

How did weapons change warfare in the modern era?

Machine guns, tanks, chemical and nuclear weapons, radar and aircraft transformed warfare; later, computerised "high-tech" weapons increased precision.

What was the impact of the tank?

First used at the Somme (1916), tanks were armoured vehicles that could cross trenches and eventually helped break the deadlock of trench warfare.

Why did radar matter in modern warfare?

Radar could detect enemy aircraft early, giving warning of attacks — it was vital in defending Britain during the Second World War.

What is guerrilla warfare?

Fighting by small, irregular groups using ambushes and hit-and-run tactics; it is hard for conventional armies to defeat (a major problem in 21st-century conflicts).

What is conscription?

Compulsory military service required by the government; it was introduced in Britain in 1916 (WWI) and again in the Second World War.

What was National Service?

Peacetime compulsory military service in Britain from 1947 to 1963, requiring young men to serve for a fixed period.

How did the recruitment of women change in the modern era?

Women were recruited in growing numbers, mainly in support and non-combat roles (e.g. the ATS and WAAF in the Second World War).

What replaced conscription in modern Britain?

The development of a fully professional, volunteer army — today's British Army is made up of paid professionals rather than conscripts.

What is the Home Front?

The organisation of civilians to support the war effort — including rationing, war work and air-raid precautions — especially during the two World Wars.

How did fear of nuclear war affect British civilians after 1945?

During the Cold War, people lived with the fear of nuclear attack, and the government issued civil defence advice on how to prepare.

Who were conscientious objectors?

People who refused to fight on moral or religious grounds; they were treated harshly in WWI but more tolerantly (e.g. given non-combat work) in WWII.

How did war reporting affect attitudes in the modern era?

Newspapers, radio and especially television brought war into people's homes, increasing public concern about casualties.

Why did governments use censorship and propaganda in wartime?

To control what information the public received and to shape attitudes — keeping up morale and hiding bad news.

What was the Battle of the Somme (1916)?

A huge First World War battle on the Western Front; it became a war of attrition with massive casualties (around 57,000 British casualties on the first day alone).

What was trench warfare?

A type of fighting where both sides defended long lines of trenches, leading to a stalemate where neither side could easily advance.

What role did General Haig play at the Somme?

He commanded the British forces; his tactics caused enormous losses and remain very controversial among historians.

What was the Iraq War (2003)?

A US- and UK-led invasion of Iraq; high-tech weaponry and surveillance won a rapid conventional victory, but it was followed by years of guerrilla insurgency.

Why was London an important target for German bombers?

It was the seat of national government, a major port and industrial centre, and was within easy flying range of German airfields.

What was evacuation?

The government plan to move children and other vulnerable people from cities like London to safer countryside areas (began September 1939).

What was an Anderson shelter?

A small air-raid shelter made of curved corrugated steel, half-buried in people's gardens and covered with earth.

Why were gas masks issued to Londoners?

The government feared German gas attacks, so gas masks were given out to civilians, including children, before the war began.

What was "Black Saturday" (7 September 1940)?

The first major day of the Blitz, when a massive German raid hit the docks and East End of London.

What was the V2 attack on Deptford (1944)?

A V2 rocket struck a busy Woolworths store in New Cross, Deptford, killing a large number of shoppers — one of the war's worst single bombing incidents in London.

What were incendiary bombs?

Bombs designed to start fires rather than explode; they caused widespread fires that were difficult for fire services to control.

What was a V1?

A pilotless German flying bomb (nicknamed the "doodlebug"); its engine cut out before it dropped, giving people a few seconds' warning.

What was a V2?

A German rocket that flew faster than sound and gave no warning at all, so it could not be intercepted or escaped.

How were London Underground stations used during the Blitz?

Many Londoners sheltered from the bombing in Tube stations overnight, despite the government initially discouraging it.

What was "Mickey's shelter"?

A large, originally unofficial East End air-raid shelter that became well organised, with its own facilities and medical care.

What was the South Hallsville School disaster (1940)?

A school in Canning Town being used as an evacuation centre was bombed, killing many people sheltering inside while waiting to be moved.

What was the Bethnal Green disaster (1943)?

A crush on the stairs of Bethnal Green Underground station killed 173 people — even though no bomb actually fell.

How did leisure continue in London during the war?

Dancehalls, theatres and cinemas stayed open, helping to keep up morale despite the bombing.

Why was the government concerned about morale in London?

It feared that sustained bombing might break civilians' spirit and turn people against the war effort.

How did the Royal Family respond to the Blitz?

King George VI and Queen Elizabeth stayed in London; when Buckingham Palace was bombed it helped them connect with ordinary Londoners and boosted morale.

What were the Cabinet War Rooms?

A protected underground bunker in central London from which Churchill and the government ran the war.

What was the "Dig for Victory" campaign?

A campaign encouraging people to grow their own food; public spaces such as Victoria Park and the Tower of London moat were turned into allotments.

What was the nature and purpose of the Blitz?

A sustained German bombing campaign (1940–41) intended to destroy British morale and damage war production.

How did the government use propaganda about the Blitz?

It controlled the news, promoted the idea of cheerful "Blitz spirit", and played down the true scale of death and destruction.

What local sources are useful for studying London in the Second World War?

Personal accounts and photographs, local newspapers, and local council records.

What national sources are useful for studying London in the Second World War?

Government records, national newspapers, Mass Observation reports, newsreels and memoirs.

What was Mass Observation?

An organisation that recorded ordinary people's diaries, conversations and opinions — very useful evidence for studying wartime attitudes and morale.

What should you consider when judging whether a source is useful?

Its strengths and weaknesses for the specific enquiry — including who made it, when, why, and what it does and does not reveal.