Expectations of Efficacy and Personal Control

Lecture 5

Locus of Control (LOC) (Rotter, 1966)

generalised trait-like belief determines whether expectancies get reinforced.

internal - believe self responsible for life outcomes. locus of reinforcement internal to person.

external - believe luck/others responsible. locus of reinforcement external to person.

more (un)desirable outcome = more reinforcing.

LOC Reviews

Strickland (1978) - review - evidence supports internals more adaptive in responses than externals.

Bennett et al. (1994) - healthy food consumption association with internal LOC and health value. LOC should be predictive under conditions of high health value. found only weak improvement in predicting consumption.

Wallston (2005) - low association between health LOC and behaviour due to failure to assess all elements. for internal health LOC → behaviour:

• value health

• believe in outcome expectancy

• self-efficacy (feel can do behaviour)

Dispositional Outcomes - Diff. to LOC

optimists = expect outcomes to be generally positive

pessimists = expect outcomes to be generally negative

dispositional optimism (generalised trait) associated with better outcomes e.g. Scho, Ekeberg & Rulan (2005) QoL breast cancer survey; Scheier et al. (1989) CABS optimists.

how does optimism predict better life outcomes?

Scheier, Weintraub & Carver (1986) - recalled stressors in students. optimism correlates with problem-focused coping + positive reinterpretation.

Aspinwall & Taylor (1992) - higher optimism predicts lower distress three months into adjustment. greater use problem-focused coping, less avoidance coping.

Puig-Perez et al. (2022) - optimists perceive less stress, experience less PTSD. engage less in avoidance.

Situation-Specific Control - Self-Efficacy

Bnadura (1977) - two cognitions associated with behaviour:-

• self-efficacy = determines effort put into task and perseverance at task in face of obstacles

• outcome expectancy - identifies whether behaviour will lead to desired goal

Self-Efficacy Dimensions

magnitude - high efficacy expectations may encompasses more levels of difficulty. low → only easier tasks.

strength - strong expectancies associated with greater perseverance. weak → easily extinguished by barriers.

generality - range from highly behaviour/situation specific → expectancies generalised across behaviours/situations.

Bandura et al. (1977)

self-efficacy accurate predictor of task performance (snake handling). performance mastery experience → higher, stronger, more generalised improvements in self-efficacy than in vicarious condition.

Scholten et al. (2020)

spinal chord injury patients assessed for efficacy and adjustment. grouped into high vs low self-efficacy baseline. 6 months post-discharge:-

low SE = more likely to have anxiety + depression symptoms

Self-Efficacy vs Locus of Control (Bandura, 1977)

LOC → behaviour a product of generalised expectancies. SE → expectations more behaviour-specific.

LOC → efficacy expectancies product of conditioning (reinforcement). SE → emphasises cognitive origin of expectancies.

LOC → beliefs about outcomes depending on personal action.

may believe outcome depends on personal action (high internal LOC), but lack skills/time to carry out task (low self-efficacy).

Self-Efficacy vs Dispositional Optimism

Aspinwall & Taylor (1992) - effects of DO statistically independent of SE.

Scheier & Carver (1992) - SE related to personal agency (situation/behaviour-specific, DO concerned with expectancy of pos/neg outcomes regardless of cause (generalised).

Types of Control

behaviour control → being able to act on situation to reach desire

cognitive control → being able to tolerate problem e.g. reinterpreting

decision control → ability to make choices among array

info control → ability to gain info about stressor

retrospective control → use past bad experience to avoid recurrence e.g. Janoff-Bulman (1979)

secondary control → ability to relinquish primary control