Cancer Types and Treatments: Benign vs. Malignant Tumours in Health Science

What is cancer?

A group of diseases where abnormal cells grow and divide uncontrollably, often forming a tumor.

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?

Benign tumors are not cancerous, slow-growing, and do not invade nearby tissue, while malignant tumors are cancerous, can invade nearby tissue, and may spread around the body.

Can benign tumors be harmful?

Yes, benign tumors can press on key body parts and become life-threatening, especially if located in the brain.

What is a tumor?

A solid mass of tissue that forms when abnormal cells group together, which can be benign or malignant.

What is chemotherapy?

A form of cancer treatment that uses drugs toxic to living cells, selectively killing rapidly growing cancer cells.

What is radiotherapy?

A treatment that uses high-energy radiation to destroy cancer cells, delivered either as a beam or through radioactive materials.

What is breast-conserving surgery?

A surgical procedure that removes just the tumor and a small amount of surrounding tissue, as opposed to a mastectomy which removes the whole breast.

What is tamoxifen used for?

Tamoxifen is a hormone therapy that stops estrogen from binding to its receptor in cells, treating tumors stimulated by estrogen.

What is Herceptin®?

A monoclonal antibody therapy that controls the growth of cells with the HER2 receptor, relevant in about 20% of breast cancers.

What does the staging system for cancer indicate?

Stages are numbered 0-4, where stage 0 means the cancer has just started and not spread, and stage 4 means it has spread to at least one other organ.

What is the grading system for cancer?

The grade is based on the appearance of cells under a microscope; grade 1 resembles normal cells and grows slowly, while grade 3 looks abnormal and grows aggressively.

What is invasive breast cancer?

The most common form of breast cancer where cancer cells develop in the milk ducts and spread to surrounding breast tissue.

What are some risk factors for breast cancer?

Starting menstruation early, beginning menopause late, and prolonged exposure to estrogen increase the risk of breast cancer.

What is thyroid cancer?

A type of cancer that can be slow-growing and may spread to lymph nodes in the neck; papillary thyroid cancer is the most common type.

What is a thyroidectomy?

A surgical procedure that involves the removal of some or all of the thyroid gland, often performed when thyroid cancer is present.

What is radioactive iodine treatment?

A treatment that kills cancer cells in the thyroid by using iodine, which the thyroid absorbs from the blood.

What is Non-Hodgkin lymphoma?

A cancer that develops in the lymphatic system, where lymphocytes multiply abnormally and lose their ability to fight infection.

What role do lymph nodes play in cancer?

Cancerous cells can spread to lymph nodes, which are part of the lymphatic system and help defend against infection.

What are talking therapies in cancer treatment?

Supportive therapies that help patients cope with mental health challenges and practical difficulties associated with cancer treatment.

What are some risk factors for non-Hodgkin lymphoma?

Weakened immune system, autoimmune disease, Epstein-Barr virus infection, Helicobacter pylori infection.

What is the difference between high-grade and low-grade lymphomas?

High-grade lymphomas grow quickly and can often be cured, while low-grade lymphomas grow slowly, may not require immediate treatment, but are harder to cure.

What is the main treatment for early-stage non-Hodgkin lymphoma?

Radiotherapy, which may be used alone or in combination with other therapies.

What happens if non-Hodgkin lymphoma does not improve with initial treatment?

A higher dose of chemotherapy is given, which may require a stem cell or bone marrow transplant.

What is Rituximab and how does it work?

Rituximab is a monoclonal antibody that binds to antigens on B lymphocytes, leading to their destruction.

What is acute myeloid leukaemia (AML)?

AML is a cancer of the white blood cells, specifically affecting monocytes and granulocytes.

What are the main treatments for acute myeloid leukaemia?

Chemotherapy, bone marrow or stem cell transplants, and talking therapies.

What is the primary treatment for germ cell testicular cancer?

Surgery to remove the affected testicle (orchidectomy).

What psychological support is recommended for testicular cancer patients?

Counselling or joining a support group to address self-esteem and body image issues.

What causes cancer at the cellular level?

Cancer results from uncontrolled cell division due to mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle.

What are tumor-suppressor genes?

Genes that slow down cell division, help repair DNA, or increase apoptosis in cells with unrepairable DNA.

What are common environmental factors that increase mutation rates?

Ionising radiation, chemicals, and biological agents like viruses (e.g., HIV, EBV).

How does age affect cancer risk?

The risk of cancer increases with age as mutations accumulate over time.

What lifestyle factors contribute to cancer risk?

Smoking, body mass, diet, physical activity, sunlight exposure, and alcohol intake.

What are some general effects of cancer on the body?

Blockages in organs, weight loss due to appetite loss, and high energy demands of cancer cells.

What is the significance of the cell cycle checkpoints?

Checkpoints ensure DNA is undamaged and can repair it; if not, the cell undergoes apoptosis.

What is the typical demographic affected by germ cell testicular cancer?

It primarily affects younger men.

What is the treatment duration for monoclonal antibody therapy in lymphoma?

It may last for up to 2 years in combination with chemotherapy.

What is the impact of cancer on glucose availability in the body?

Cancer cells have a high demand for energy, using a lot of glucose, which leaves less available for other cells.

What is the relationship between genetic disorders and acute myeloid leukaemia?

Genetic disorders, such as Down's syndrome, can increase the risk of developing AML.

What is the purpose of talking therapies for cancer patients?

To provide emotional support and help patients cope with anxiety during treatment.

What is the main goal of chemotherapy in treating AML?

To kill as many leukaemia cells as possible and reduce the risk of relapse.

What is a common complication of intensive chemotherapy and radiotherapy?

Destruction of the immune system, necessitating a bone marrow or stem cell transplant.