Psych All Vocab

scientific attitude

being skeptical but not cynical, open minded but not gullible

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. it exams assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral perspective

focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings to the side

we behave in ways because we’ve been conditioned to do so

biological perspective

physical examination of the brain and related chemicals

can explain behavior and mental processes

cognitive perspective

focuses on how we see the world and think

opposite of behavioral

evolutionary perspective

focuses on Darwinism

we behave the way we do because we inherited these behaviors

these behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors survival

humanistic perspective

we do something to reach our full perspective

focuses on experience

psychodynamic perspective

focuses on unconscious mind

we repress many of our true feelings and are not aware of them

sociocultural perspective

people and societies around us have a large and significant impact on our behavior and development

hindsight bias

aka knew it all along phenomenon

the tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

peer review

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

survey technique

a non experimental technique for obtaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative (random sample) of the group

sample

a subset of a population

representative sample

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

theory

a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced

social desirability bias

bias from people’s responding in ways they perceive a researcher expects or wishes

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be chosen

generalizability

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

can be supported or refuted

case study

a non experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

self report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlate

when one trait or behavior tends to coincide with another

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to 1.00)

variables

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the value of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

effect size

strength of relationship between two variables. longer the effect size the more one variable can be explained by the other

statistical significance

statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

meta analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

inferential statistics

numerical datât that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

bimodal distribution

occurs when there are two frequently occurring scores

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data, most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

aka normal distribution

standard deviation

computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

range

difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

variation

how similar or diverse the scores are

skewness

representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

percentile rank

percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

median

middle score in a distribution

mean

arithmetic average

mode

most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

descriptive statistics

numeric data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, involve measures of tendency and measures of variation

confidentiality

protects privacy and personal information of individuals involved in psychological research

protection from harm

probably what it sounds like

institutional review

ethics committee

debriefing

post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

informed assent

informed consent but for minors

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

research confederates

people who pretend to be fellow participants but are actually part of the experiment

deception

act of deceiving someone

qualitative research

research method that relies on in-depth, narrativve data that are not translated into numbers

quantitative research

research method that relies on quantifiable numerical data

reliability

the extent to which findings can be replicated

validity

extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

dependent variable

outcome that is measured, variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

independent variable

factor that is manipulated; variable whose effect is being studied

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect or behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

single blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting difference between the two groups

control group

group not exposed to treatment, contrasts with experimental grope and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment - to one version of the independent variable

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effects on some behavior or mental processes

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship

third variable problem

something that can cause a change to B that is not A

directionality problem

not being able to tell which variable is the cause and which is the effect

environment

every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

genes

the biochemical units of heredity

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment 

twin study 

a research method that compares the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors on traits and behavior

gene-environment interaction 

the interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences that shape an individual’s traits, behaviors, and health outcomes

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change) 

natural selection 

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations 

nature-nurture issue 

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. 

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communications network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system

aka CNS

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system 

aka PNS 

the sensory ad motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles 

aka skeletal nervous system 

autonomic nervous system

aka ANS

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs. its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms 

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulation, such as the knee-jerk reflex

reflex arc

a simple spinal reflex pathway that is composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron 

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nerve system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center 

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, concluding impulses toward the cell body