psychology exam stage 2 second cards

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obedience

definition

milgram - aim, procedure, results, conclusion

zimbardo - background, procedure, deindividuation, conclusion

dispositional factors

referred as internal factors and include personal qualities that we have little control over

situational factors

include those elements in our environment that can influence our behaviour and include work, school, and people around you 

factors that influence obedience 

prestige, proximity to authority figure, deindividuation 

also consider individual and cultural differences

ethical issues associated with milgram’s research

psychological harm and distress, right to withdraw, deception

conformity

definition, types, why people conform, factors affecting

types of conformity

compliance, identification, internalisation

why people conform

normative social influence

informational social influence

refer to jenness’ bean jar experiment

individual differences (personal characteristics and personality traits)

factors affecting conformity 

lack of group unanimity, answer in private, anonymity

social, cultural and ethical impact of ethnocentric bias in observational research

chosen method on conducting cross-cultural research on social influence 

ethnocentric bias 

ethical, cultural, social implications

ethical implications

informed consent, reviewed by HREC 

cultural implications

one should never assume that a task in psychological instrument will have the same meaning cross-culturally, Eurocentric, risk of cultural bias

social implications

Indigenous participants felt that their personal safety within community was compromised due to engaging inn research process. researcher is to ensure that at minimum, there is access to accessible services participant can seek help and advice from

attitudes and persuasion 

define attitude

define persuasion

ABC model

factors affecting attitude formation and/ or attitude change 

persuasion strategies 

bidirectional relationship between attitudes and behaviour - attitude can influence behaviour, behaviour can influence attitude 

consistency of attitude behaviour link 

measuring attitudes 

ABC model

Affective

behavioural

cognitive

factors affecting attitude formation and/ or attitude change 

external factors

yale attitude approach

elaboration likelihood model - central and peripheral route of persuasion

direct + indirect experience

yale attitude approach

source

message

audience

persuasion strategies 

the norm of reciprocity 

door-in-the-face

foot-in-door

bidirectional relationship between attitudes and behaviour - attitude can influence behaviour,

attitude strength, attitude accessibility, attitude specificity 

bidirectional relationship between attitudes and behaviour - behaviour can influence attitude 

self-perception

cognitive dissonance 

cognitive dissonance 

internal factors

1. change behaviours

2. justify behaviour by changing

3. justify behaviour by adding

4. ignore or deny information

consistency of attitude behaviour link 

situational pressures, self-monitoring

consequences of inconsistency between attitudes and behaviours

mental distress, inability to predict behaviour, social desirability bias

measuring attitudes 

behavioural counts, self-reports, implicit association test

Likert scales, focus groups

prejudice and discrimination

stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination are linked

ABC model 

why are people prejudiced

effects of prejudice 

changing attitudes and reducing prejudice 

strategies for changing attitudes and reducing prejudice 

why are people prejudiced

unintentional biases (confirmation, attribution gender, conformity)

exposure

learning (association, reinforcement, modelling)

effects of prejudice 

social stigma

internalisation of others’ evaluation

stereotype threat 

changing attitudes and reducing prejudice 

explicit forms of discrimination are now illegal and socially censored

strategies for changing attitudes and reducing prejudice 

education

intergroup contact

superordinate goals

direct experience

self presentation (impression management)

self-presentation,

self-concept

validation

high and low self monitors

impression management

social media mental health 

ethical concerns with social media 

self concept

ideal self, self-image, self-worth

impression management

primacy effect, recency effect, schema

social media

pros and cons

classical conditioning

learning

Pavlov

stimulus generalisation and discrimination

Little Albert - Watson and Raynor

acquisition and performance

contiguity and contingency

extinction and spontaneous recovery

preparedness 

systematic desensitisation

systematic desensitisation

step 1- relaxation technique

step 2- write a list/ hierarchy of fears

step 3- in state of relaxation, attempt first item on hierarchy by actually being there or visualising it. attempt next step 

operant conditioning

reinforcement

elements of operant conditioning

reinforcement aims to strengthen behaviour 

punishment aims to weaken behaviour  

distinguishing punishment from negative reinforcement

advantages of reinforcement

importance of contiguity and contingency in operant conditioning

schedules of reinforcement

placebo effect

behavioural modification

elements of operant conditioning

Skinner

reinforcer

punisher

reinforcement aims to strengthen behaviour 

positive reinforcement 

negative reinforcement 

punishment aims to weaken behaviour  

aversive punishment

response cost/ negative punishment 

distinguishing punishment from negative reinforcement

reinforcement increases behaviour

punishment decreases behaviour 

advantages of reinforcement

schedules of reinforcement

placebo effect

behavioural modification

teaches correct behaviour

makes child/ animal/adult feel loved or appreciated

help develop self esteem

increases motivation to do correct behaviour again in future

punishment only affective when

brief, immediate and linked to undesired behaviour, positive behaviour taught to replace negative and is reinforced

contingency (OC)

consistent, appropriate

shaping preparedness 

schedules of reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

partial reinforcement

fixed and variable schedules

partial reinforcement

interval and ratio schedules

behavioural modification

1) monitor

2) negotiate realistic goal 

3) reinforcement schedule

4) start, reward small improvement 

5) gradually remove reward

observational learning

definition

factors affecting 

Bandura’s bobo doll

behavioural counts

characteristics of role model

contrasting each of the learning theories

mirror neurons

factors affecting

bandura

ARRM

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

characteristics of role model

people we perceive warm and nurturing

authoritative position

similar to us in age, sex and interests

admire or who are of a higher social status 

lack confidence i n our knowledge or abilities 

Personal differences in learning

personal difference in the way we learn

cognitive behaviour therapy 

personal difference in the way we learn

personal characteristics

academic characteristics

social/ emotional characteristics

cognitive characteristics 

biopsychosocial model

increased risk of mental illness

bio model

genetics, neurochemistry, hormones, injury, age, sex, medications/ drugs, immune response, fight-flight response

psycho model

attention, learning, memory, emotions, thinking, attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, coping, strategies

social model

family background, education, interpersonal relationships, cultural traditions, socioeconomic status, poverty, physical exercise, gender 

design investigation

IV, DV, hypothesis, qualitative research questions (what, how) constant and extraneous variables 

extraneous variables 

interfere with casual link

impact results

experimenter effects, demand characteristics, situational variables, population

types of sampling

random (more systematic and carefully planned process

stratified (breaks population down to smaller group and random samples taken in same proportion as population

convenience (quick and convenient, but may contain a large range of bias)

experimental designs

experimental group (exposed to IV)

controlled group )is not exposed to IV)

twin studies - to eliminate participant extraneous variables twins are used. important for participants to not know if they are experimental or control group to avoid placebo

match participants (Bandura’s doll matched in terms of aggressiveness)

repeated measures design

watson and rayner - only one group of participants exposed to different experimental conditions

observational designs

naturalistic observation

correlation studies

longitudinal design

cross-sectional studies

sequential designs

naturalistic observation

observing and recording variables of interest in a natural setting without interference or manipulation. For example, a researcher interested in aspects of social influence in a classroom such as conformity to behaving as others do, obedience to the teacher, or attitudes to learning, might use naturalistic observation as part of their research.

This design is well-suited to studies where researchers want to see how variables behave in their natural setting or state. In some cases, it might be the only method available to researchers; for example, if lab experimentation would be precluded by access, resources, or ethics. It might be preferable to not being able to conduct research at all, but the method can be costly and usually takes a lot of time.

It does not allow them to control or influence the variables in any way nor can they change any possible external variables. It also does not mean that researchers will get reliable data from watching the variables, or that the information they gather will be free from bias.

For example, participants might act differently if they know that they are being watched. The researchers might not be aware that the behaviour that they are observing is not necessarily the subject's natural state (i.e., how they would act if they did not know they were being watched).

correlation studies

longitudinal design

cross-sectional studies

sequential designs

While correlational research can demonstrate a relationship between variables, it cannot prove that changing one variable will change another. In other words, correlational studies cannot prove cause-and-effect relationships.

A researcher could have participants come to a laboratory to complete a complex cognitive task and a hypothetical risky decision-making task and then assess the relationship between participants' scores on the two tasks.

longitudinal design

observational design, uses the repeated measures principle in that the research is repeated with the same people. Instead of the research being completed in a short space of time, they occur over a longer time interval, often over several years, or even decades.

The researchers hypothesise that people who are more physically fit in their 40s and 50s will be less likely to experience cognitive declines in their 70s and 80s.

The advantages of a longitudinal study are that there is less bias from participant variables, as the participants remain the same, and direct changes in the participant can be observed.

They are however time consuming, expensive, and participants may drop out over the months, or years that the study is conducted.

cross-sectional studies

In research designs where the independent variable is age, a cross-sectional study may be used.

Researchers are often interested in researching across a wide range of age groups. Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are not causal or relational, meaning that you can't use them to determine the cause of something.

sequential designs

Sequential designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs.

Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential research includes participants of different ages.

This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and to account for the possibility of cohort and/or time of measurement effects

qualitative designs

focus groups

delphi technique

interviews

focus groups

refers to a group interview technique that obtains data though discussion between research participants in a group setting 

participants encouraged to talk to each other, ask questions, exchange personal experiences and points of views

facilitator (researcher) promotes group discussion with free response questions 

note taker is allocated to each focus group to take notes and capture important aspects of discussions 

people are not limited to yes/no responses or scales 

safety in numbers- allows participants to feel more comfortable than independently discussing personal experiences 

however some may be dominant participants and some may not feel comfortable in discussing

delphi technique

used for complex problem solving and aim is to obtain a consensus

• series of questionnaires to gather opinion of targeted group

• first questionnaire with open ended questions for written qualitative responses

• subsequent questionnaires sent once responses to first have been collated

• responses collated by panel of experts who identify themes and categories in data. info is returned to participants for their feedback 

• process continues until consensus is reached or enough info has been gathered

enables large of small groups of expertise to be contacted cheapy, has few geographical limitations when using self-administered questionnaire

however researcher may force consensus and weaken agreed upon opinion  

interviews

small number of general questions or prompts that allows participants to talk about what interests them, unstructured or semi-structured (participants keeps yapping and follow up by asking more detailed questions)

advantages similar to focus groups 

data collection

qualitative or quantitative in nature, and may be objective or subjective

objective data

verified by other researchers, increasing reliability and validity of data

collect through behaviour count, physiological measure

behaviour count

measurement tools such as stopwatch, ruler. checklist to measure thinks such as running speed, shoe size, etc. behaviours can be measured by multiple researchers, reducing bias 

physiological measures

objective data as they are measurable and verified by more than one researcher

heart-rate, blood pressure, brainwave activity

reliability of quantitative measures

tool not correctly calibrated, user is not trained in its operation

subjective data

observation, self-reports, questionnaire, likert scale, interviews

greater insight on personal beliefs, feelings, and ideas

observation

when researcher observes another individual or group of people in natural environment and record observations. also quantitative as observations tallied or recorded in numerical form

self-reports

participants complete series of questions. responses provide information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviours. quantitative in nature, as data is collected in numerical form and summarised.

interviews

qualitative, subjective

questions are more open ended, ask for more detailed and deep responses

not very time efficient and require strategy to collect verbal response

standard deviation

measures variability in data, helping researchers understand human behaviour and interpret research findings effectively

measures how dispersed scores are around mean in any data set