NBS, Watson et al. 2018

What proportion of remaining global forests are degraded or fragmented?

As much as 82% of remaining forests are degraded or fragmented.

How should forests be treated in policy according to degradation status?

Not all forests should be treated equally; intact forests need special consideration.

What is forest degradation?

Physical stresses that lead to a decline in ecological function.

Why are intact forests often overlooked in international policy?

Because policy frameworks tend to treat all forests as equal regardless of condition.

What is a key advantage of protecting intact forests in terms of cost?

They often have high environmental value with relatively low implementation and opportunity costs.

How do intact forests contribute to climate mitigation?

They store more above- and below-ground carbon and support strong carbon sequestration in soils and biomass.

How do intact forests support biodiversity?

They maintain higher species richness, functional diversity, and genetic diversity than degraded forests.

How do intact forests influence weather and climate regulation?

They help generate rainfall, reduce drought risk, and regulate regional weather systems.

How do intact forests affect hydrological systems?

They maintain runoff, water table levels, and soil moisture, improving water availability.

How do intact forests protect against extreme events?

They buffer human settlements against extreme climatic events.

What proportion of global emissions is linked to deforestation and forest degradation?

About 26% of global emissions.

How significant is degradation in tropical forest carbon emissions?

In the tropics, degradation accounts for 1–40% of aboveground carbon emissions.

What are main causes of industrial-scale logging impacts on carbon stocks?

Tree removal, collateral damage, decomposition of logging waste, and depletion of soil and peat carbon.

How close are most forests to human disturbance?

About 70% of the world’s forests lie within 1 km of a forest edge.

How do intact forests regulate local climate systems?

They regulate exchange of radiation, moisture, and wind between land and atmosphere.

How does forest degradation affect biodiversity beyond logging?

It increases hunting, fragmentation, and stand damage due to easier human access.

How many people live in or depend on forests globally?

About 250 million people.

How does industrial logging affect Indigenous cultures?

It undermines traditional resource management and weakens cultural identity linked to intact forests.

What human health risks are associated with forest degradation?

Increased wildfire deaths and higher risk of infectious disease emergence, including zoonoses.

What impact did Indonesia’s 2015 forest fires have on health?

They caused over 100,000 premature deaths across Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.

What proportion of forests had no detectable human pressure in 2009?

Only about 18%, a 35% decline since 1993.

What is a “landscape trap” in degraded forests?

A feedback loop where degraded forests are seen as low value, leading to further logging, damage, and vulnerability.

Why are degraded forests more vulnerable over time?

They have reduced resilience to climate change, fire, and invasive species.

How do intact forests differ in resilience?

They have higher adaptive capacity and maintain large-scale ecological processes like natural disturbance regimes.

What are major drivers of forest degradation?

Selective logging, overhunting, altered fire and flood regimes, climate change, and invasive species.

How should intact forests be addressed in policy frameworks?

They should be explicitly defined and valued in climate mitigation and conservation targets.

Which international mechanisms could better support intact forest conservation?

REDD+, the Green Climate Fund, and the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility.

What is the importance of deforestation-free supply chains?

They reduce pressure on intact forests by preventing market-driven forest loss (e.g., soy moratorium in Brazil).

How can Indigenous land rights support forest conservation?

Enabling land titling increases protection and sustainable management of forest ecosystems.

What is a key strategy for restoring degraded forests?

Natural regeneration, rewilding, invasive species removal, and corridor creation (e.g., Bonn Challenge approaches).

What is the overall conclusion about intact forests?

They provide higher environmental and social value than degraded forests and require stronger protection and stewardship.