Anatomy and Physiology Review: Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Endocrine, and Nervous Systems

Flashcards covering the anatomy and physiology of the lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, endocrine, and nervous systems based on lecture notes.

Lymph

The fluid component of the lymphatic system.

Lymphatic vessels

Tubes that transport lymph from tissues back to the blood circulation.

Lymphatic capillaries

Smallest lymph vessels with one-way openings that pick up interstitial fluid.

Right lymphatic duct

Duct that drains lymph from the right side of the head, right arm, and right upper chest.

Thoracic duct

The main drainage route that drains lymph from the rest of the body into the left subclavian vein.

Subclavian veins

The vessels into which lymph ducts drain to return fluid to the blood circulation.

Nonspecific defenses

Innate immune responses such as phagocytosis and inflammation.

Phagocytosis

The process by which cells like macrophages and neutrophils engulf and digest pathogens.

Mast cells

Key immune cells that release histamine during inflammatory responses.

Histamine

A chemical released by mast cells to trigger inflammation.

Macrophages

Cells that engulf pathogens and act as antigen-presenting cells to activate T cells.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

Cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells that activate T cells.

Dendritic cells

Also known as Langerhans cells, these act as antigen-presenting cells.

Helper T cells

Lymphocytes that release cytokines and activate other immune cells.

Cytotoxic T cells

T cells that kill infected or abnormal cells directly by causing apoptosis.

Memory T cells

T cells that provide long-term immunity and a rapid response on re-exposure to an antigen.

Plasma cells

Activated B cells that produce and secret antibodies.

Memory B cells

B cells that remain in the body for long-term immunity and a faster future response.

NK Cells

Natural killer cells that attack infected and cancer cells without needing antigen specificity.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death triggered by cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells.

Thymus

A lymphoid organ where T cells mature and thymosins are produced.

Bone marrow

The site where B cells and NK cells mature.

Afferent vessels

Lymphatic vessels that bring lymph into a lymph node.

Efferent vessels

Lymphatic vessels that take filtered lymph out of a lymph node.

Tonsils

Lymphoid tissue in the throat that traps pathogens entering through the air or food.

Spleen

An organ that filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and stores iron.

Thymosins

Hormones produced by the thymus that aid in T cell maturation.

Nasal Cavity

Part of the upper respiratory tract that filters, warms, and humidifies air.

Conchae

Bony projections in the nasal cavity that create turbulence to filter air.

Nasopharynx

The region of the pharynx lined with ciliated epithelium used only for respiration.

Oropharynx

The region of the pharynx lined with stratified squamous epithelium shared by respiratory and digestive systems.

Laryngopharynx

The lower part of the pharynx that leads to the larynx.

Larynx

The organ responsible for voice production and containing the vocal cords.

Epiglottis

A cartilage fold that covers the trachea during swallowing to protect the airway.

Paranasal Sinuses

Hollow spaces in the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary bones.

Trachealis muscle

The muscle that connects the ends of C-shaped tracheal cartilages to control diameter.

Ciliated epithelium

The lining of the trachea and nasopharynx that moves mucus upward.

Bronchioles

Small branches of the bronchial tree that lack cartilage.

Terminal bronchioles

The final part of the conducting portion of the respiratory system.

Respiratory bronchioles

The beginning section of the respiratory portion where gas exchange starts.

Alveoli

The primary sites of gas exchange in the lungs.

Type I pneumocytes

Simple squamous cells that form the gas exchange surface of the alveoli.

Type II pneumocytes

Alveolar cells that produce surfactant to prevent lung collapse.

Surfactant

A substance that reduces surface tension in alveoli to keep them from collapsing.

Alveolar macrophages

Cells within the alveoli that remove debris and pathogens.

Visceral pleura

The serous membrane that directly covers the surface of the lungs.

Parietal pleura

The serous membrane that lines the inner chest wall.

Diaphragm

The primary muscle of respiration that contracts during inhalation.

External intercostals

Accessory muscles used to assist in the inhalation process.

Internal intercostals

Muscles used for forced exhalation.

Ingestion

The process of taking food into the oral cavity.

Mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of food through chewing in the mouth and churning in the stomach.

Chemical digestion

The breakdown of food using enzymes and acids.

Peristalsis

Wave-like muscular contractions that push food forward through the GI tract.

Segmentation

Mixing movements in the small intestine that ensure food contact with enzymes.

Uvula

A structure that closes off the nasopharynx during swallowing.

Parotid glands

Salivary glands that produce a watery secretion containing amylase.

Submandibular glands

Glands that produce approximately $70\%$ of the body's saliva.

Sublingual glands

Small salivary glands located under the tongue that produce mostly mucus.

Salivary amylase

An enzyme in saliva that begins the chemical digestion of starch.

Deciduous teeth

The initial set of $20$ baby teeth.

Permanent teeth

The adult set of teeth, totaling $32$.

Enamel

The hard outer layer of the tooth crown.

Dentin

The inner support layer of the tooth located under the enamel.

Pulp

The central part of the tooth containing nerves and blood vessels.

Cementum

The specialized substance that anchors the tooth root to the jaw.

Parietal peritoneum

The serous membrane lining the internal wall of the abdominal cavity.

Visceral peritoneum

The serous membrane that covers the surface of the abdominal organs.

Intraperitoneal

Organs that are fully covered by the visceral peritoneum, such as the stomach.

Retroperitoneal

Organs located behind the peritoneum and only partially covered, such as the kidneys.

Greater omentum

A large mesentery that stores fat and provides protection for abdominal organs.

Lesser omentum

A mesentery that extends from the liver to the stomach.

Mesocolon

The mesentery that supports and attaches the large intestine to the body wall.

Mucosa

The innermost layer of the GI tract responsible for absorption and secretion.

Submucosa

The layer of the GI tract containing blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves.

Muscularis externa

The GI layer containing circular and longitudinal muscles for movement.

Serosa

The outer protective layer of the GI tract organs within the peritoneal cavity.

Plicae

Permanent circular folds in the small intestine that slow food and increase surface area.

Villi

Finger-like projections in the small intestine that facilitate nutrient absorption.

Microvilli

The brush border on epithelial cells that further increases absorption area.

Duodenum

The first part of the small intestine where digestion occurs via bile and pancreatic enzymes.

Jejunum

The middle segment of the small intestine and the primary site for nutrient absorption.

Ileum

The final part of the small intestine involved in immune function and vitamin absorption.

Cecum

The pouch-like beginning of the large intestine to which the appendix is attached.

Liver

The accessory organ responsible for bile production, detoxification, and nutrient storage.

Gallbladder

An organ that stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver.

Pancreas

An organ that produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid.

Peptide hormones

Hormones composed of proteins, such as insulin.

Steroid hormones

Cholesterol-based hormones such as testosterone.

Negative feedback

A control mechanism where the body corrects a change to restore homeostasis.

Growth Hormone (GH)

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates body growth.

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone that promotes water retention in the kidneys.

Insulin

A pancreatic hormone that lowers blood glucose levels.

Glucagon

A pancreatic hormone that raises blood glucose levels.

CNS

The Central Nervous System, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

PNS

The Peripheral Nervous System, consisting of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia.

Sensory (Afferent)

The division of the PNS that carries information toward the CNS.

Motor (Efferent)

The division of the PNS that carries commands away from the CNS to the body.

Astrocytes

CNS glial cells that maintain the blood-brain barrier and support neurons.

Microglia

Phagocytic glial cells in the CNS that provide immune defense.