Chapter 11: Parliamentary, Presidential, and Semi-Presidential Democracies from Principles of Comparative Politics.

Classify democracies ⇥

Parliamentary, Presidential, or Semi-Presidential

Definition of government in political science ⇥

The political chief executive and the cabinet

Typical size of a government ⇥

30 to 35 individuals

Question 1 to classify democracies

Is the government responsible to the elected legislature?

If government is not responsible to legislature ⇥

Presidential democracy

If government is responsible to legislature and head of state is NOT popularly elected ⇥

Parliamentary democracy

If government is responsible to legislature and head of state is popularly elected ⇥

semi-Presidential democracy

Presidential democracy ⇥

Government is not responsible to legislature; president is head of state

Semi-Presidential democracy ⇥

Government is responsible to legislature; head of state IS popularly elected for a fixed term

Parliamentary democracy ⇥

Government is responsible to legislature; head of state is NOT popularly elected for a fixed term.

Vote of no confidence ⇥

A legislative vote that can remove the government from power

Constructive vote of no confidence ⇥

Requires naming a replacement government when removing the current one (e.g., Germany, Belgium)

Germany's head of state election ⇥

Not popularly elected; chosen by regional legislature

Philippines head of state election ⇥

Popularly elected; direct vote

Popular election of head of state ⇥

Citizens vote directly or through an electoral college reflecting the public's choice

Ireland's head of state term ⇥

Popularly elected for a fixed 7-year term

Percentage of parliamentary democracies (2021) ⇥

46.2%

Percentage of presidential democracies (2021) ⇥

31.1%

Region where presidential democracies dominate ⇥

The Americas

Percentage of semi-presidential democracies (2021) ⇥

26.2%

Regions where parliamentary and semi-presidential systems dominate ⇥

Europe and parts of Asia

What is the key difference in government formation between presidential and parliamentary systems?

In presidential systems, the president is always the formateur and doesn't need a legislative majority; in parliamentary systems, the government must maintain majority legislative support.

What is a “reversion point” in presidential democracies?

It refers to the fallback where the president governs alone if no coalition is formed.

Why is legislative responsibility absent in presidential democracies?

Because the president cannot be removed by a vote of no confidence, unlike a prime minister.

What types of cabinets are more common in presidential democracies?

Minority cabinets are much more frequent than majority or coalition cabinets.

What does Table 11.7 show about presidential systems in Latin America (1953–2011)?

Many governments were single-party minorities or formed minimal coalitions; full majority governments were rare.

Why do presidents in presidential systems often avoid forming coalition governments?

Because they don’t need legislative support to stay in office and can appoint cabinet members unilaterally.

What are decree-laws, and when are they used?

Decrees issued by presidents that have the force of law, often used when legislative support is weak.

According to Table 11.8, how do presidential and parliamentary cabinets differ?

Presidential cabinets have more nonpartisan ministers (29.17%) and less proportional portfolio allocation (0.65).

What defines a semi-presidential democracy?

A system with both a popularly elected president and a prime minister who is responsible to the legislature.

What are the two types of semi-presidential systems?

Premier-presidential (government responsible to legislature) and president-parliamentary (responsible to both president and legislature).

What is cohabitation in a semi-presidential democracy?

When the president and prime minister are from different political parties.

How did France experience cohabitation?

Multiple periods where a right-wing or left-wing president had to appoint a PM from the opposition due to election outcomes.

What did Ukraine’s cohabitation show?

It can cause severe political conflict and even crisis, especially when leaders have opposing ideologies.

What is the principal-agent relationship in democratic systems?

A setup where one actor (principal) delegates authority to another (agent) to act on their behalf.

What is the single-chain delegation model?

Found in parliamentary systems—voters delegate to representatives → PM → ministers → civil servants.

What is the multiple-chain delegation model?

Found in presidential systems—voters delegate to president and legislature, creating a more complex chain.

What is agency loss?

The difference between the outcome achieved by the agent and what the principal would have preferred.

What are adverse selection and moral hazard?

Adverse selection: picking the wrong agent; Moral hazard: agent acts in self-interest after being delegated authority.

How does moral hazard apply in politics?

Politicians might act against the voters' interests if voters can't fully monitor or understand their actions.

What does the Principal-Agent Game illustrate?

How delegation can result in different policy outcomes depending on alignment of preferences between principal and agent.

Symbolic “no confidence vote”

to register its disapproval